The following experiments looked at how encoding information and available cues at test can influence context effects. More specifically, the present experiments investigated the overshadowing and outshining hypotheses. Experiment 1 established a new method for attaining robust reinstatement effects by using movie scenes. Experiment 2 found support for the outshining hypothesis. So, if verbal and contextual cues were encoded and verbal cues were present at test, then context reinstatement through the reinstatement of the movie scenes would have little effect on memory. However, in the absence of verbal cues at test, significant context effects were found showing that the verbal cues were able to outshine the context (i.e., the movie scenes). Experiment 3 extended the outshining hypothesis by showing that strengthening the association between the verbal cues and the target items led to greater outshining of the movie scenes by the verbal cues. Experiment 4 looked at the overshadowing hypothesis and showed that if the context (i.e., the movie scenes) was not encoded well, but the verbal cues were then the context was overshadowed by the verbal cues. Further, if the association between the verbal cue and target items was encoded, then the overshadowing effect was greater as compared to cases where the association between the two items was not encoded. Finally, Experiment 5 found that if context was well encoded but verbal cues were not well encoded then the verbal cues were overshadowed by the context. It was also found that encoding the association between the context and target led to a more robust overshadowing effect as compared to cases where the association was not encoded.

Adults with intellectual disability (ID) experience twice the rate of mental health disorders when compared to the general population. Despite increased prevalence of mental health disorders, caregivers supporting adults with ID rarely seek mental health counseling supports, but instead are referred to psychiatric services. There is limited understanding among researchers about the lack of counseling services for adults with ID. The purpose of this study was to explore the lived experiences of mental health counselors who have worked with adults with ID in a counseling relationship. Hermeneutic phenomenology was used to develop thick and rick experiential detail about counselor experiences providing services for adults with ID. The conceptual framework involved the social constructivist and hermeneutic phenomenological lenses. The 8 participants were recruited using a purposive snowball sampling method and provided data through semi-structured interviews. Data analysis involved coding for themes with the help of NVivo software. Findings indicated counselor perceptions of adults with ID as being stigmatized and marginalized within their communities, which aligned with literature. Adults with ID must be prepared for counseling and there must be appropriate adaptations to support meaningful participation and benefit from counseling interventions. Exposure to adults with ID was a factor in counselors being willing to engage with this population, and questions about counselor education and preparedness were a consistent theme. The social implications of exploring this gap will lead to a better understanding of counselor experiences and can inform the professional body about how to increase access to counseling services for adults with ID.

Legislative changes in line with changing societal perspectives have resulted in increased service pressure on primary health practitioners to take further responsibility for the assessment and treatment of co-morbid psychiatric disorders in individuals with intellectual disability (ID) and for secondary and tertiary level services to reduce waitlists. The unique attributes of the ID population and a core lack of training for health professionals in the ID field has resulted in a large number of practitioners feeling under-trained and under-resourced to carry out this role effectively, to the potential detriment of the ID population. The challenges health practitioners experience when diagnosing co-morbid mental health disorders in individuals with ID and how they overcome these challenges was explored in this study. Participants were health practitioners of varying professions, including Psychiatrists, Clinical Psychologists and General Practitioners. Health practitioners completed an online survey and/or partook in a focus group or individual interview. The method used in this research was thematic analysis. The study found that health practitioners use holistic and contextual approaches to carry out assessments of individuals with ID, utilise ID specific tools, and liaise with experienced, specialised health practitioners as ways of dealing with the complexity of diagnosing co-morbid mental health difficulties in individuals with ID. In addition, it is recommended that more training in the ID area is provided for health practitioners, particularly for GPs in light of recent policy changes with emphasis of assessment and treatment occurring at the primary health level and for best practice guidelines to be developed. A further research project is suggested, exploring specific challenges facing GPs in this area of practice.

Faut-il verbaliser pour mémoriser et apprendre ? D’après la littérature examinant l’influence des verbalisations sur l’apprentissage et la mémoire, la réponse à cette question dépend du type de matériel utilisé (matériel conceptuel versus matériel perceptif) et du niveau d’expertise des apprenants. Dans l’Étude 1, nous avons examiné l’incidence de descriptions verbales sur la reconnaissance visuelle de séquences de mouvements d’escrime, avec des participants de trois niveaux d’expertise (novices, intermédiaires et experts). Dans l’Étude 2, nous avons étudié l’influence de différents contenus de descriptions verbales sur la reconnaissance de séquences de mouvements d’escrime, en fonction de l’expertise. L’objectif de l’Étude 3 était d’examiner l’effet sur la mémoire d’une trace autre que verbale : une trace motrice. Les résultats de l’Étude 1 montrent que verbaliser améliore la reconnaissance des novices, altère celle des intermédiaires et n’a aucun effet sur la reconnaissance des experts. Les résultats de l’Étude 2 montrent que le contenu des descriptions verbales a une incidence sur la mémoire, en fonction du niveau d’expertise des participants. Les résultats de l’étude 3 montrent que reproduire le mouvement d’escrime, sans feedback, nuit à la reconnaissance visuelle des participants novices. Ces résultats élargissent le phénomène d’ombrage verbal à un matériel nettement plus conceptuel que celui qui est classiquement utilisé dans ce domaine de recherche. Ils apportent un étayage solide à la proposition théorique de l’interférence résultant d’un recodage verbal (Schooler, 1990). Ils montrent également qu’une trace motrice additionnelle peut nuire à la reconnaissance visuelle de séquences de mouvements / Is it necessary to verbalize in order to memorize and learn a material? According to the literature examining the influence of verbalizations on learning and memory, the answer to this question depends on the type of material used (conceptual material versus perceptive material) and on the learners’ level of expertise. In Study 1, we examined the influence of verbal descriptions on the visual recognition of sequences of fencing movements, with participants of the three levels of expertise (novices, intermediates, experts). In Study 2, we studied the influence of different content of verbal descriptions on the recognition of sequences of fencing movements, according to the level of expertise. The goal of Study 3 was to examine the effect on memory of a trace distinct from a verbal trace: a motor trace. The findings of Study 1 show that verbalizing improves novices’ recognition, impairs intermediates’ recognition and has no effect on experts’ recognition. The results of Study 2 show that the content of verbal descriptions has an effect on memory, according to the participants’ level of expertise. The findings of Study 3 show that duplicating the fencing movement, with no feedback, strongly impedes beginners’ visual recognition. These findings broaden the verbal overshadowing phenomena to a material distinctly more conceptual than the one classically used in this field of research. They bring strong support to the theoretical hypothesis of interference resulting from a verbal recoding (Schooler, 1990). They also show that an additional motor trace can harm visual recognition of movement sequences

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Bakgrund: Samsjuklighet förekommer ofta hos personer med psykisk sjukdom. Det är vanligt att de behöver hjälp inom den somatiska vården. Trots att psykisk sjukdom är utbrett i samhället är detta tillstånd fortfarande behäftat med stigma. En form av stigmatisering är diagnostisk överskuggning, vilket innebär att fysiska symptom felaktigt tolkas som symptom på den psykiska sjukdomen. Detta leder till underdiagnostisering och felbehandling. Stigma kan internaliseras och leda till självanklagelser och undvikande av kontakt med till exempel sjukvården. Syfte: Syftet var att undersöka hur personer med psykisk sjukdom upplever den somatiska sjukvården. Metod: En litteraturöversikt innehållande tolv vetenskapliga artiklar; tio kvalitativa samt två kvantitativa. Resultat: Fyra huvudteman utkristalliserades: ”Att inte bli tagen på allvar”, ”Längtan efter någon som lyssnar”, ”Självanklagelser och skam” samt ”Upplevelser av barriärer”. Diskussion: Resultatet diskuterades mot Erikssons omvårdnadsteori och Nordenfelts teori om värdighet samt mot konsensusbegreppen människa, hälsa och miljö. Det mest framträdande temat var upplevelsen av att inte bli tagen på allvar. Patienterna kände att vårdpersonalen viftade bort deras upplevelser och tolkade att de fysiska symptomen gick att härleda till den psykiska sjukdomen. Detta är exempel på stigma i handling, en företeelse som bidrar till minskad värdighet och vårdlidande hos patienten. / Background: Medical comorbidity is common in people with mental illness. There is still a strong stigma attached to mental illness. One of these could be diagnostic shadowing, a process where health professionals wrongly presume that physical symptoms are consequences of the patient´s mental illness. Diagnostic overshadowing can lead to underdiagnosis and mistreatment of the physical condition. Stigma and self-discrimination could also prevent people with mental illness from seeking treatment. Aim: The aim was to investigate how people with mental illness experience somatic health care. Method: A literature review was conducted which included twelve articles: ten with qualitative design and two with quantitative design. Results: Four main themes emerged: "Experience of not being taken seriously", "Longing for someone who listens", "Self-discrimination and shame" and "Experiences of barriers". Discussion: The results was discussed in relation to Eriksson's nursing theory, Nordenfelt theory of dignity and the consensus concepts of person, health and environment. The most distinct and common theme was the experience of not being taken seriously. The health professionals did not listen to the patients and assumed that the physical symptoms were consequences of the mental illness. This is stigma in action and it contributes to suffering and affects the patient’s sense of dignity.

Aposematic species have evolved conspicuous warning signals, such as bright colors and striking patterns, to deter predators. Some edible and harmless species take advantage of this deterrent effect by mimicking their appearance. Mimicry is a great example of how natural selection produces remarkable adaptations. However, while some species evolve a very close similarity to their models to effectively avoid attacks, others are successful in doing so despite an incomplete similarity, i.e. imperfect mimicry. In some cases, it is surprising how such a crude disguise can fool predators. Why and how imperfect mimicry can persist has been much discussed and considered as a problem for the theory of natural selection. It is therefore of great interest to understand what makes it possible. Predator psychology is an important factor in the evolution of aposematism and mimicry. In the past decades it has been suggested that certain components of prey appearance are more important to predators than others during prey assessment. We developed this idea by incorporating concepts from associative learning, and presented a new approach to explain imperfect mimicry. Our general hypothesis is that prey traits have different salience to predators. Certain traits are perceived as highly salient and are thus used primarily in the discrimination and generalization of prey, while traits with low salience are overshadowed and not used in the assessment. The salience of a trait can depend on how conspicuous or discriminable it is in the particular context, and can vary due to for example previous predator experience. We tested our ideas with wild blue tits and domestic chickens as predators, and artificial and semi-natural prey stimuli. In paper I we found that the trait that was perceived as most salient (color) was the one used to discriminate and generalize between prey. Mimics of that specific trait were highly avoided, despite differences in the other traits. We also found that salience is relative and context dependent (paper II). In a context where two traits were perceived as similarly salient, mimicry of a single trait offered intermediate protection, while mimicry of both offered high protection. In another context, the traits were perceived differently salient, and mimicry of one trait was enough for high protection. In paper III we tested a proposed scenario for the initiation of mimicry evolution in the edible butterfly mimic Papilio polyxenes asterius to its noxious model Battus philenor. The results showed that a partial similarity with the model in the salient black wing color offered intermediate protection from attacks, despite a general dissimilarity. This thesis investigates the major questions of imperfect mimicry: the initial step of mimicry evolution, the persistence of imperfect mimicry, and variation in mimic-model similarity. We conclude that mimicry evolution can begin in a non-mimetic species that acquires similarity to a model species in a high-salience trait. When multiple traits have similar salience, multi-trait mimicry is needed for higher protection. Mimicry can remain imperfect if the differences are in traits with low salience, and therefore under low or no selection pressure to change. To complete the picture, we showed that predators can have a biased generalization toward a more pronounced version of a salient trait (paper IV). The evolution of aposematism could therefore be explained by gradual enhancement of salient traits. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Accepted. Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

Paivio的雙碼理論(Dual Coding Theory)認為, 語文與視覺處理歷程為互助相輔.但是, Schooler and Englster-Schooler(1990)卻提出 "語文遮蔽效果(verbalovershadowing effect, VOE)", 認為視決刺激在提取階段, 可能因語文訊息的存在,而產生干擾的現象. 這種遮蔽作用, Brandimonte, Hitch, and Bishop(1992a,b)發現同時出現在記憶與登錄階段. Marks(1991)更發現它會隨視覺訊息的屬性差異 - 資料趨勢(data-driven)與概念趨勢(conceptual-driven), 而有不同的影響結果. 資料趨勢的視覺刺激訊息, 傾向於處理物理性的視覺特姓, 故不會因為個體採取語文處理的模式, 而出縣語文遮蔽效果, 干擾記憶與辨市的表現. 相反的, 概念趨勢的視覺訊息,則傾向於處理刺激本質的屬性, 與語文訊息有所關連, 連帶在個體採取語文處理模式 時, 便會因語文遮蔽效果而干擾表現。 本研究主要探討不同視覺刺基屬性於登錄階段與語文處理歷程之間的交互作用關係. 實驗一藉由操弄 "登錄型式(語文描述, 口語抑制, 控制組)" 與 "視覺訊息類別(資料趨勢訊息, 概念趨勢訊息)" 的方式, 檢驗此二獨變項之間的交互作用, 亦即檢驗 "登錄階段將出現VOE" 與 "資料趨勢與概念趨勢訊息的VOE將有所差別" 的假設.實驗結果利用杜恩氏多重比較法證實研究者所提之假設: 不同視決刺激屬性於登錄階段的VOE有所差異 - 資料趨勢訊息於登錄階段並不會出現VOE, 概念趨勢訊息於登錄階段則會出現VOE。 實驗二則主要探討不同視覺刺激屬性於登錄階段出現VOE的導因. 借助Lindsay and Johnson(1989)所提出的 "資源混淆(source confusion)", 與Fallshore and Schooler(1995)所提出的 "特徵轉換(characteristics shift)" 作為理論根據, 研究者同時操弄 "登錄訊息屬性", "語文登錄形式", 與 "有無忽略提示" 三個獨變項, 並檢驗此三獨變項之間的交互作用, 亦即檢驗 "資料趨勢訊息不會出現VOE" 與 "概念趨勢訊息於語文登錄成功前, 會因為資源混淆而出現VOE; 語文登錄成功之後, 則會因特徵轉換而出現VOE" 的假設. 研究結果同樣利用杜恩氏多重比較法進行檢驗, 亦獲支持: 視覺刺激的資料趨勢訊息, 即使以語文描述方式進行視覺刺激登錄, 仍舊不會出現VOE. 而概念趨勢訊息若以親自描述的方式進行語文登錄,則因語文登錄完成, 造成個體處理模式的特徵轉換, 因而不論是否給予忽略提示, 都將因VOE而抑制辨識表現; 若以閱讀他人描述的方式進行語文登錄, 則由於登錄尚未完成, 個體因語文與視覺訊息的提取資源混淆, 故可利用忽略提示的方式, 讓個體區辨視覺與語文訊息的差異, 進而避免VOE的干擾作用。