The study aims to investigate how deaf learners with impoverished linguistic input in early life acquire Chinese passives and to what extent it impacts their ultimate attainment of the target structures defined in terms of knowledge representations and processing efficiency. While research on how deaf learners acquire syntactic movement remains scanty, available evidence with English, Hebrew, Arabic and Italian as target languages suggests difficulty in acquiring structures derived by A’-movement generally invoked in object relative clauses, object questions, and OVS topicalizations (Friedmann & Szterman,2006, 2011; Friedmann & Haddad,2008; Volpato & Adani, 2009; etc.). / In this study, we focused on Chinese passives because they involve non-canonical word order (i.e. O-BEI-(S)-V) as well as long distance dependencies. To account for the base-generated NP which is associated with the object of the embedded VP of Chinese bei-passives, Huang(1999) and Huang et al. (2009) argue for A-movement of PROin short bei-passives and A’-movement of a null operator in long bei-passives, assuming that the empty category merges with the embedded V in Chinese bei-passives and is subsequently coindexed with the grammatical subject through control or predication. Semantically, canonical Chinese passives are said to impose constraints on verb transitivity (Huang, 2013),and under some specific conditions, telicity of the embedded VP(Yang, 1995; Yang, 2012), the latter of which usually requires specific verb complement structures. / Three experiments were designed to investigate these issues.The picture selection task investigated how deaf learners developed knowledge of syntactic derivations involved in long bei-passives and short bei-passives; the grammaticality judgment task tested whether deaf learners acquired knowledge that intransitive verbs, like unaccusative and unergative verbs, are not allowed in canonical Chinese passives; and lastly,the elicited production task investigated deaf learners’ production of verb complements targeted in this study, namely activity-resultative complement [V+R], activity-completive complement [V+C], and activity-locative/directional complement [V+L], as it has been argued by Yang (1995) and Yang (2012) that these verb complements encode a telic event. In addition to examining their knowledge of Chinese passives, we also measured their response time in the first two tasks as a means to examine their efficiency in processing the structures in question. / Thirty five deaf learners aged between 14 and 24 took part in the current study. They were divided into three groups based on levels of Chinese proficiency. From the perspective of knowledge representations, their acquisition outcomes were highly variable, unlike the first language acquirers but similar to second language learners. In general, only those deaf learners at Level 3 completely acquired the syntactic derivations involved in passives while a great majority of the deaf learners at Levels 1 and 2 failed to demonstrate full mastery of the relevant linguistic structures. In addition, about half of the deaf learners at Levels 1 and 2 failed to recognize the verb transitivity constraint of the embedded VP in Chinese bei-passives, as they wrongly judged the passives with an intransitive verb to be grammatical. As for the knowledge of encoding telicity using verb complement structures, deaf learners at all levels experienced much difficulty and resorted to adopting the perfective aspect marker ‘le’ instead. Such difficulty persisted for a long time, as even deaf university students failed to acquire such knowledge ultimately, implying that verb complement structures for encoding a telic eventmight become a vulnerable residual domain to deaf learners in acquisition terms. / In terms of types of passives, the results showed that they developed Chinese passives in the order pseudo passives > short bei-passives > long bei-passives, similar to the Mandarin-speaking children, albeit at a slower rate (Xu & Yang, 2008).Also, deaf learners found it easy to acquire A-movement of an overt NP in pseudo passives. However, they experienced much difficulty with short passives and long passives. We argue that the cause of such difficulty is the syntactic movement which in this case involves an empty category (i.e. PRO and NOP) that needs to be coindexed with the grammatical subject in order to yield a correct interpretation regarding the thematic role of the subject NP.The extremely late acquisition of long bei-passives, as we argue, shares a similar acquisition process involved in first language acquisition of English tough constructions (Guasti, 2002; Anderson, 2005; Wexler, 2012; etc.). In their analysis, the late acquisition might be due to maturation of the null operator or Universal Phase Requirement that holds among children whose developing grammar takes the aP (i.e. the adjective Phrase as in ‘Everyone is tough for us to please.’) in the tough constructions to bea phase, preventing T from probing beyond the edge of aP leaving the phi-features of T remain unchecked. / Another aspect of ultimate attainment as measured in the current study is response time used by the deaf learners to process the relevant linguistic structures. Results showed that deaf learners’computational capacities are highly constrained. Even deaf university students who performed just as well as the native controls on the comprehension and judgement of linguistic knowledge of passives still demonstrated low processing efficiency. It is suggested that impoverished linguistic input in the early years, as well as continually inadequate input impedes language acquisition and language processing. / 本文旨在研究聋人在早期语言输入贫乏的环境下如何获得汉语被动式，以及它在何种程度上影响聋人目标语的最终获得状态，包括语言知识的呈现(knowledge representations) 和语言处理的效率(processing efficiency)。长期以来，关于聋人如何获得句法移位(syntactic movement)的研究极少，现有的研究主要来自英语，希伯来语，阿拉伯语和意大利语，并且发现聋人在获得通过非论元移位(A’-movement)派生而来的语法结构时存在许多困难，如宾语关系子句(object relative clause)，宾语疑问句(object questions)，以及宾语位于句首的话题句(OVS topicalizations) (Friedmann & Szterman, 2006, 2011; Friedmann et al., 2008; Volpato & Adani, 2009; etc.)。 / 研究聋人汉语被动式的获得，不仅因为被动式的非典型语序(i.e. O-BEI-(S)-V)，还因为汉语长短被动句句式中蕴含的长距离依赖关系。Huang (1999)和Huang et al. (2009)提出汉语短被动句的生成源自大代词(PRO)的论元移位(A-movement)，长被动句的生成源自空算子(null operator)的非论元移位(A’-movement)，通过移位，这两个空语类通过控制(control)或述谓(predication)与长短被动句中基础生成的(base-generated)主语同指。从语义的角度来看，典型的汉语被动式内嵌动词短语(embedded VP)具有及物性(transitivity)(Huang, 2013)；而且在某些特定语境下，还需具有终结性(telicity)，终结性的表达往往通过特定的动词补足语结构(verb complement structures)(Yang, 1995; Yang, 2012)。 / 为探讨以上问题，我们设计了三个实验：图片选择任务(picture selection task)旨在探讨聋人如何获得长被动句和短被动句中蕴含的不同句法移位；语法判断任务(grammaticality judgment task)用于测试聋人是否获得典型汉语被动式不允许不及物动词的知识；最后，诱导产出任务(elicited production task)用于研究聋人被动式中动词补足语的使用，以及他们是否能够掌握通过补足语来表达状态或位置的改变，从而满足被动式的终结性特征。该任务中涉及的动词与补足语的结合类型包括：“活动动词-结果类补足语(activity-resultative complement)” [V+R]，“活动动词-完成类补足语(activity-completive complement)” [V+C]，以及“活动动词-方位词/方向性短语(activity-locative/directional complement)”[V+L]。除此以外，我们还测量聋人在图片选择和语法判断这两个任务中的反应时长，以考察聋人加工处理汉语被动式的效率。 / 35位14岁到24岁的聋人参与了该研究，并且通过汉语水平测试分数将他们分到三个不同的组别。从掌握语言知识的角度来看，聋人汉语被动式的获得表现出高度的多样性，虽然不同于一语学习者，但与二语学习者相似。简言之，只有高级组(Level 3)的聋人才完全掌握汉语被动式的句法生成，大部分初级组(Level 1)和中级组(Level 2)的聋人都未能完全掌握相关的语言知识。另外，将近一半的初级组和中级组的聋人尚未获得汉语被动式中内嵌动词及物性的要求，他们错误地认为汉语被动句中使用不及物动词是合语法的。最后，关于被动句内嵌动词短语使用各类动词补足语来表达终结性，所有组别的聋人普遍遇到困难，并且用完成体标记‘了’来替代。这种困难一直持续很长时间，即使是聋人大学生都未能系统完整地获得，意味着使用各类动词补足语来表达终结性可能是缺乏早期语言输入的聋人学习汉语被动式最终难以完全获得的。 / 关于不同类型汉语被动句的获得，结果显示聋人获得的先后顺序与健听儿童一致(Xu & Yang, 2008)，即：假被动句(pseudo passives) > 短被动句> 长被动句。整体而言，假被动句中显现成分(overt element)的论元移位对聋人来说比较容易获得；但是，他们在获得长被动句和短被动句的句法移位，以及正确解读空算子或大代词与句子主语的共指方面存在许多困难。对于长被动句的最迟获得，我们认为这与以英语为母语的儿童延迟获得‘tough-句式’类似(Guasti, 2002; Anderson, 2005; Wexler, 2012; etc.)，有可能因为空算子的成熟(the maturation of null operator)要到6至7岁，或者是未成熟儿童坚持普遍阶段要求(Universal Phase Requirement)，而导致句法生成受阻。 / 本研究所定义的最终获得的另一方面即加工处理相关语言结构所用反应时长。结果显示聋人的加工处理能力高度受限，即使是较好地获得了汉语被动句相关知识的聋人大学生依然表现出较低效率的加工处理能力。这些研究结果表明早期贫乏的语言输入以及随之的不充足语言输入都会阻碍语言的最终获得及加工处理的效率。 / Li, Qun. / Thesis M.Phil. Chinese University of Hong Kong 2015. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 245-253). / Abstracts also in Chinese. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on 09, September, 2016). / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only.

Wong Shee-hei. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 173-181). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / List of Abbreviations --- p.iii / List of Tables and Figures --- p.v / Abstract / -English --- p.vii / -Chinese --- p.iv / Chapter Chapter One: --- Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1. --- An Overview --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1.1 --- Reasons for the Study --- p.2 / Chapter 1.2. --- Previous Research --- p.7 / Chapter 1.2.1. --- Studies on the Acquisition of Chinese as Second Language --- p.8 / Chapter 1.2.2. --- Studies on the Acquisition of English Passives by ESL learners --- p.12 / Chapter 1.2.3. --- Studies on the English L2 Overpassivization Errors ´ؤ Passivization of Unaccusative Verbs by ESL --- p.14 / Chapter 1.3. --- Theories of Interlanguage --- p.19 / Chapter 1.3.1. --- Prior Linguistic Knowledge and Language Transfer --- p.19 / Chapter 1.3.2. --- Language Universals and Universal Grammar --- p.22 / Chapter 1.4. --- Research Question of the Present Study --- p.24 / Chapter 1.5. --- Preview of Other Chapters --- p.24 / Notes to Chapter One --- p.25 / Chapter Chapter Two: --- Passive Constructions and Related Structures in Chinese and English --- p.27 / Chapter 2.0. --- Introduction --- p.27 / Chapter 2.1. --- Chinese Passives --- p.29 / Chapter 2.1.1. --- Chinese Bei-passives --- p.32 / Chapter 2.1.1.1. --- Some Characteristics of Chinese Bei-passives --- p.35 / Chapter 2.2. --- English Passives --- p.41 / Chapter 2.2.1. --- English Be-passives --- p.42 / Chapter 2.2.2. --- Get/Have-passives in English --- p.44 / Chapter 2.3. --- Structures related to Passives --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.1. --- Topic Structures --- p.46 / Chapter 2.3.1.1. --- Topic-comment Structure in Chinese --- p.47 / Chapter 2.3.1.2. --- Topic Structure in English --- p.50 / Chapter 2.3.2. --- Unaccusative Verbs --- p.50 / Chapter 2.3.2.1. --- Chinese Unaccusative Construction --- p.53 / Chapter 2.3.2.2. --- English Unaccusative Construction --- p.56 / Chapter 2.3.2.3 --- Japanese Unaccusative Construction --- p.58 / Chapter 2.4. --- Conclusion and Interlanguage Problems Predicted --- p.60 / Notes to Chapter Two --- p.62 / Chapter Chapter Three: --- Methodology --- p.64 / Chapter 3.1. --- Aims of the Experiment --- p.64 / Chapter 3.2. --- Research Hypotheses --- p.65 / Chapter 3.3. --- Subjects in the Experiment --- p.68 / Chapter 3.4. --- Types of the Test Structures --- p.70 / Chapter 3.5. --- Experiment Materials --- p.75 / Chapter 3.5.1. --- The Picture Description (PD) Task --- p.75 / Chapter 3.5.2. --- The Grammaticality Judgment (GJ) Task --- p.77 / Chapter 3.6. --- Experimental Procedure and Test Scoring --- p.83 / Notes to Chapter Three --- p.84 / Chapter Chapter Four: --- Results of the Experiment --- p.85 / Chapter 4.1. --- Overall Results --- p.85 / Chapter 4.1.1. --- The Picture Description (PD) Task --- p.86 / Chapter 4.1.2. --- The Grammaticality Judgment (GJ) Task --- p.101 / Chapter 4.2. --- English-speaking Learners verse Controls --- p.119 / Chapter 4.3. --- Japanese-speaking Learners verse Controls --- p.125 / Chapter 4.4. --- Possible Shortcomings of the Experiment --- p.126 / Chapter 4.4. --- Conclusion --- p.127 / Notes to Chapter Four --- p.128 / Chapter Chapter Five: --- Discussion and Conclusions --- p.129 / Chapter 5.1. --- The Research Questions and Hypotheses --- p.129 / Chapter 5.2. --- A Summary of the Findings in the PD Task --- p.131 / Chapter 5.3. --- A Summary of the Findings in the GJ Task --- p.132 / Chapter 5.4. --- Some Important Issues --- p.133 / Chapter 5.4.1. --- Evidence of Ll Transfer --- p.133 / Chapter 5.4.2. --- Overpassivization of Chinese Unaccusative Verbs and the Universality of Overpassivization Phenomenon in IL Grammar --- p.136 / Chapter 5.4.3. --- Further Difficulties in the Acquisition of Chinese Passives and Related Structures --- p.139 / Chapter 6.5. --- Conclusions --- p.140 / Chapter 6.6. --- Suggestions for Further Studies --- p.142 / Appendices --- p.145 / References --- p.173

Kinder erwerben Passivstrukturen später als die meisten anderen syntaktischen Strukturen. Die vorliegende Studie beschäftigt sich mit der Frage, ob dies auf informationsstrukturelle Faktoren zurückzuführen sein könnte. Probleme beim Erwerb von Passivsätzen wurden in vorhergehenden Studien unter anderem auf ihre geringe Inputfrequenz oder bestimmte syntaktische Charakteristika von Passivsätzen zurückgeführt. Jedoch konnte bisher keiner dieser Ansätze ihr spätes Erwerbsalter umfassend erklären. Während Aktivsätze, die kanonische, unmarkierte Satzstruktur im Deutschen, in jeglichem Diskurskontext verwendet werden können, werden Passivsätze fast ausschließlich dann verwendet, wenn der Patiens der beschriebenen Handlung schon vorerwähnt war und/ oder als Topik eines Satzes fungieren soll. Passivsätze sind also nicht in jedem Kontext informationsstrukturell adäquat. Kinder haben im Gegensatz zu Erwachsenen aufgrund ihrer geringeren syntaktischen Fähigkeiten Probleme, Sätze zu verarbeiten, die nicht in einem adäquaten Kontext stehen. Der Einfluss dieser Kontextbedingungen auf das Satzverständnis wurde in der vorliegenden Studie bei deutschsprachigen Kindern untersucht. Kindern zwischen 3;0 und 4;11 Jahren wurden Aktiv- oder Passivsätze präsentiert, denen informationsstrukturell adäquate, inadäquate oder neutrale Kontextsätze vorangingen. Wie erwartet verstanden die Kinder Aktivsätze besser als Passivsätze und 4-jährige Kinder zeigten bessere Leistungen als 3-jährige. Es gab Tendenzen, dass die 3-jährigen Kinder Passivsätze besser, aber Aktivsätze schlechter verstanden, wenn ihr Subjekt vorerwähnt wurde. Statistisch signifikante Kontexteffekte fanden sich jedoch im Gegensatz zu einer vergleichbaren Studie mit englischsprachigen Kindern (Gourley und Catlin, 1978) in keiner Testbedingung. Außerdem zeigte sich, dass die Kinder Passivsätze insgesamt besser und Aktivsätze insgesamt schlechter verstanden als englischsprachige Kinder in anderen Studien. Die Ergebnisse werden mit dem Competition Modell (Mac Whinney und Bates, 1987) und einer Sprachverarbeitungstheorie von Stromswold (2002) erklärt. Außerdem wird diskutiert, warum die deutschsprachigen Kinder in der vorliegenden Studie andere Sprachverständnisleistungen zeigten als englischsprachige Kinder. / Children acquire passive constructions later than most other syntactic structures. The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether this phenomenon can be explained with an information-structural account. In former studies problems in the acquisition of the passive voice have often been attributed to its low input frequency or to its specific syntactic characteristics. However, none of these theories could sufficiently explain the late age of acquisition of passive structures. Sentences in the active voice, the canonical, unmarked, structure in German can be used in any discourse context while passive sentences are almost always used if the patient of the described action is GIVEN in the context and/ or serves as the TOPIC of the sentence. Therefore passive sentences cannot be used in any context without violating information structural constraints. It is more difficult for children – due to their less developed syntactic abilities – than for adults to process sentences which do not occur in an information structurally appropriate context. The present study examines the influence of the context on sentence comprehension abilities of German speaking children. Children at the age of 3;0 – 4;11 years were presented active or passive sentences in an information structurally appropriate, inappropriate or neutral context. As expected, children comprehended active sentences better than passive sentences, and 4-year olds performed better than 3-year olds. There was a tendency that 3-year olds comprehended passive sentences better but active sentences worse if the subject of the sentence was GIVEN in the context. However, there were no statistically significant context effects, in contrast to a similar study with English-speaking children (Gourley and Catlin, 1978). In addition, it could be shown that German-speaking children comprehended passive sentences better than English-speaking children in other studies. The results are explained with the Competition Model (Mac Whinney and Bates, 1987) and Stromswold’s (2002) theory of language processing. It is also discussed why German-speaking children showed different language comprehension abilities than English-speaking children.

Esta pesquisa investiga alguns aspectos das vozes verbais nas gramáticas normativas de língua portuguesa. Alguns conceitos como o de voz passiva e de partícula apassivadora são objeto de discussão por parte de diferentes autores da gramaticografia de língua portuguesa que tem adotado pontos de vista distintos e até antagônicos sobre cada um destes aspectos. Este trabalho também busca demonstrar que a gramática normativa de língua portuguesa atual não renovou a sua teoria sobre as vozes verbais, que remonta a Dionísio o Trácio com seu manual escrito há mais de dois mil anos atrás, e que necessita, deste modo, identificar as fragilidades de sua teoria e renová-la com o instrumental teórico de que dispõe as modernas correntes da linguística. / This research investigates some aspects of the verbal voices in the normative grammar of portuguese language. Some concepts like passive voice and the clitic SE are discussed by many authors in the portuguese language gramaticography that have adopted different and opposite points of view about each one of these aspects. This work also intends to demonstrate that the normative grammar of portuguese language nowadays did not renew its theory about verbal voices, which remonts to Dionísio of Trácia with his manual which was written two thousand years ago, and it needs identify the fragilities of normative grammar theory and needs to renew it with the theorical instrumental available in the modern linguistics currents.

[pt] Este trabalho tem por objeto as estruturas gramaticais portuguesas tradicionalmente denominadas voz passiva analítica e voz passiva sintética (ou pronominal). No quadro da abordagem sistêmico-funcional, são analisadas as semelhanças e diferenças semânticas entre elas, tendo por base seu emprego em textos. O exame de ocorrências dessas estruturas em diferentes gêneros de textos jornalísticos - notícias, editoriais e artigos - revela diferenças de distribuição, com a quase inexistência de voz passiva sintética nas notícias. Partindo desse fato como uma evidência da não-equivalência funcional entre as duas estruturas, estuda-se o significado das ocorrências em contexto, visando a identificar a contribuição específica de cada tipo de estrutura para a realização dos significados do texto. O significado de cada estrutura é, assim, analisado em seus componentes textual, ideacional e interpessoal. No domíno textual, a voz passiva analítica, que se caracteriza pela conversão do participante paciente em Sujeito e, portanto, em Tema não-marcado, funciona primordialmente como um recurso para facilitar o posicionamento de informação dada antes de informação nova, na ordem dos constituintes oracionais. A voz passiva sintética, por sua vez, não apresenta essa propriedade de tematizar um participante, já que, na ordem não-marcada, é o Processo que ocupa a primeira posição oracional nessa estrutura. Na maioria das ocorrências de voz passiva sintética, o constituinte que seria o Sujeito da oração correspondente em voz passiva analítica representa informação nova. Sendo assim, as duas estruturas estudadas contribuem de modos diferentes para a organização do fluxo informacional do texto. No domínio ideacional, há, por um lado, uma diferença na distribuição dos tipos de processo entre as estruturas. A voz passiva sintética presta-se melhor à representação de processos mentais que a voz passiva analítica. Por outro lado, porém, é no âmbito ideacional que as duas estruturas apresentam um traço comum de significado, visto que ambas servem à representação de um processo sem a identificação do Agente. Finalmente, no domínio interpessoal, as estruturas se distinguem pelo fato de que a voz passiva sintética apresenta Sujeito indeterminado, ao contrário da voz passiva analítica. O Sujeito indeterminado, caracterizado pela indefinição máxima da categoria de pessoa, possibilita diferentes efeitos de sentido no que se refere ao envolvimento tanto do autor, quanto do leitor. Propõe-se, desse modo, uma caracterização da voz passiva analítica e da voz passiva sintética em termos de traços semânticos, na forma de um sistema de três parâmetros binários, correspondentes às três metafunções sistêmico-funcionais. Essa análise do significado em traços independentes permite compreender melhor a especificidade do potencial semântico de cada estrutura, bem como a funcionalidade de cada uma no discurso. / [en] The object of this work are the Portuguese grammatical structures traditionally known as analytical passive voice and synthetic (or pronominal) passive voice. Considering their use in texts, the semantic similarities and differences between them are analysed within a systemic- functional framework. The study of these structures in different journalistic genres - reports, editorials and articles - reveals distributional differences, as synthetic passive voice nearly does not occur in reports. Taking this fact as evidence of the functional nonequivalence between the two structures, the work studies the meaning of their occurrences in context, in order to identify the specific contribution of each type of structure to the realization of the text meanings. The meaning of each structure is thus analysed in its textual, ideational and interpersonal components. In the textual domain, analytical passive voice, which is characterized by the conversion of the affected participant into Subject and, consequently, into unmarked Theme, functions primarily as a resource for placing given information before new information, in the order of clause constituents. Synthetic passive voice, on the contrary, does not bear this property of turning a participant into Theme, once it is the Process that occupies the clause first position in this structure. In most of the occurrences of synthetic passive voice, the constituent which would be the Subject of the correspondent clause in analytical passive voice represents new information. So, the two structures contribute in different ways to the organization of the informational flow of the text. In the ideational domain, there is, on the one hand, a difference in the distribution of process types between the structures. Synthetic passive voice is more suitable for the representation of mental processes than analytical passive voice. On the other hand, however, it is in the ideational component that the two structures share a semantic feature, as both of them allow representation of a process without identification of the Agent. Finally, in the interpersonal domain, the structures are distinguished by the fact that synthetic passive voice has indeterminate Subject, differently from analytical passive voice. Indeterminate Subject, characterized by a maximum indefiniteness of grammatical person, permits a variety of meaning effects concerning the author`s and the reader`s involvement. A characterization of analytical passive voice and synthetic passive voice is thus proposed in terms of semantic features, in a system of three binary parameters, correspondent to the three systemic- functional metafunctions. This analysis of meaning in independent features allows a better understanding of the specific semantic potential of each structure, as well as of the functionality of each one in discourse.

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / Nosso trabalho investiga como a realizaÃÃo variÃvel de concordÃncia verbal em construÃÃes de voz passiva sintÃtica, com a alternÃncia entre a presenÃa e a ausÃncia de marca explÃcita de plural no verbo de 3 pessoa, apresenta-se no atual contexto linguÃstico cearense, especificamente em dois jornais locais: O Povo e DiÃrio do Nordeste. Para isso, selecionamos 240 ediÃÃes, durante o perÃodo de janeiro a dezembro de 2016, levando-se em consideraÃÃo trÃs gÃneros textuais: editoriais, artigos de opiniÃo e notÃcias. No total, coletamos 121 dados referentes à variaÃÃo de concordÃncia verbal com a construÃÃo de voz passiva sintÃtica, os quais foram submetidos ao programa computacional estatÃstico Goldvarb X, que gerou frequÃncias e pesos relativos que serviram de base para a descriÃÃo e anÃlise dos dados. O programa apontou que a ausÃncia de marca explÃcita de plural no verbo com a voz passiva sintÃtica à condicionada essencialmente por dois grupos de fatores: um linguÃstico, forma verbal, e outro extralinguÃstico, gÃnero textual. Contudo, o nÃmero de dados em que o verbo apresenta marca explÃcita de plural (59,5%) mostrou-se mais representativo do que o somatÃrio dos dados em que o verbo nÃo consta da marca explÃcita de plural (40,5%). Para o desenvolvimento deste trabalho, utilizamo-nos dos pressupostos teÃrico-metodolÃgicos da SociolinguÃstica Variacionista (LABOV, 2008), conjugados a princÃpios funcionalistas, em especial, o PrincÃpio da MarcaÃÃo (GIVÃN, 1995) e o PrincÃpio da Expressividade (DU BOIS & VOTRE, 2012). AlÃm da possÃvel mudanÃa em direÃÃo à indeterminaÃÃo com a construÃÃo de voz passiva sintÃtica, concluÃmos que, no grupo de fatores linguÃsticos forma verbal, as formas perifrÃsticas e infinitivas, especialmente com esse tipo de construÃÃo, tendem a ser realizadas sem a presenÃa do morfema de plural, como uma manobra para reduzir ou anular o esforÃo de codificaÃÃo, motivada em termos de expressividade e de eficÃcia comunicativa. Jà em relaÃÃo ao grupo extralinguÃstico gÃnero textual, hà tendÃncia de que formas mais marcadas ocorram em contextos mais marcados e as menos marcadas em contextos menos marcados, ou seja, formas verbais mais marcadas em construÃÃes de voz passiva sintÃtica â com a presenÃa de morfema de plural â tendem a ocorrer em contextos mais marcados, como no gÃnero textual editorial, ao passo que formas verbais menos marcadas â com a ausÃncia de morfema de plural â tendem a ocorrer em contextos menos marcados, como no gÃnero textual notÃcia. / Our work investigate how the variable fulfillment of verbal concord in synthetic passive voice constructions, alternating between the presence and absence of explicit mark of plural in the third person of verb forms, is presented in the current linguistic context of CearÃ, specifically in two local newspapers: O Povo and DiÃrio do Nordeste. In order to reach this goal, we selected 240 editions focusing on three textual genres: editorial, opinion article, and news from January to December, 2016. A number of 121 data concerning the variation of verbal concord with the synthetic passive voice construction was selected and submitted to the statistical computer program Goldvarb X which generated frequencies and relative weight that served as basis to the description and data analysis. The program pointed out that the absence of the explicit mark of the plural in the verb with the synthetic passive voice is subject to two groups of factors: one linguistic, verbal form; and the other extralinguistic, textual genre. However, the number of data in which the verb presents explicit mark of plural (59.5%) claimed to be more representative than the amount of data in which the verb is not present in the explicit mark of plural (40.5%). In order to develop this research, we used as theoretical-methodological basis the Sociolinguistic Variation (LABOV, 2008), attached to the functionalist principles, notably to the Markedness Principle (GIVÃN, 1995) and the Principle of Expressiveness (DU BOIS & VOTRE, 2012). Besides the possible change towards the indetermination due to the use of the synthetic passive voice, we conclude that as for the group verbal form the periphrastic and infinitive forms, especially with this type of construction. The aforementioned forms tend to be fulfilled without the presence of the plural morpheme as a device to reduce or set aside the codification effort and motivated in terms of expressiveness and communicative accuracy. As far as the extralinguistic group textual genre is concerned, there is a tendency that more marked forms occur in contexts that are more marked and less marked forms occur in contexts that are less marked as well. In summary, more marked verbal forms in synthetic passive voice â with the presence of a plural morpheme - tend to appear in contexts that are more marked such as in textual genre editorial whereas less marked verbal forms â absence of plural morpheme â tend to occur in contexts that are less marked such as in the news textual genre

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / Este trabalho visa caracterizar formal, semÃntica e pragmaticamente as construÃÃes passivas, mÃdias e impessoais, com o fim de elucidar a natureza da relaÃÃo entre estas construÃÃes, no portuguÃs arcaico, relaÃÃo essa observada em trabalhos, como os de Camacho (2002, 2003, 2006), para o portuguÃs atual. Parte do princÃpio de que o traÃo comum a essas construÃÃes à a nÃo-atribuiÃÃo de causalidade, e de que estas construÃÃes refletem diferentes conceitualizaÃÃes de um evento. Com base nesses princÃpios, analisa, numa abordagem cognitivo-funcional (GIVÃN, 1993, 1995, 2002, 2005; KEMMER, 1993; CAMACHO, 2002, 2003; HOPPER & THOMPSON, 1980; POTTIER, 1992; CROFT, 1994, 1998; LANGACKER, 1987, 1991; DELANCEY, 1987; TALMY, 1988, 2000; LAKOFF, 1977), a codificaÃÃo da funÃÃo nÃo-atribuiÃÃo de causalidade na CrÃnica Geral da Espanha de 1344, prosa histÃrica representante do portuguÃs arcaico, editada por Cintra (1951). Nessa anÃlise, busca respostas para os seguintes problemas: (a) dos recursos verbais disponÃveis, no corpus analisado, para a expressÃo da nÃo-atribuiÃÃo de causalidade, qual a mais e a menos prototÃpica? (b) que traÃos semÃntico-pragmÃticos e formais caracterizam as diferentes estratÃgias? A hipÃtese central considera que as construÃÃes analisadas codificam a nÃo-atribuiÃÃo da causalidade em variados graus, conforme fatores ligados à noÃÃo de causalidade e à transitividade, como a perspectivaÃÃo e a saliÃncia. Foram coletadas 1061 ocorrÃncias e analisadas quanto a fatores pragmÃticos, como a topicalidade e o estatuto informacional; fatores semÃnticos, como saliÃncia cognitiva do Afetado e do Causativo, traÃo [animado], tipo de afetaÃÃo; e fatores formais, como a ordem e a expressÃo. AlÃm disso, todas foram graduadas quanto ao grau de transitividade e de relevo discursivo. Os resultados apontaram que a mÃdia à a mais prototÃpica das construÃÃes de nÃo-atribuiÃÃo de causalidade, por ser a que apresenta causativo menos saliente e menor grau de transitividade. A passiva, mais freqÃente no corpus e, muitas vezes, com Causativo omitido, caracterizou-se como menos prototÃpica por seu Causativo ser freqÃentemente evocado e apresentar maior grau de transitividade. Do mesmo modo, a impessoal, cujo causativo à freqÃentemente inferÃvel, manifestou-se como mais causativa e mais transitiva que a mÃdia, todavia menos que a passiva. A anÃlise demonstrou, enfim, que o fenÃmeno da nÃo-atribuiÃÃo de causalidade nÃo à um fenÃmeno isolado, limitado à manifestaÃÃo ou nÃo de um Agente. Submete-se a graus e acha-se ligado, especialmente, ao contorno tÃmporo-aspectual do evento. Devido à noÃÃo experiencial de causalidade, ligada à idÃia de movimento, eventos perfectivos sÃo mais causais que eventos imperfectivos. / This work aims to characterize formally, semantically and pragmatically the passive, middle and impersonal constructions, in order to elucidate the nature of relation between these constructions in a archaic Portuguese, a relation observed in researches, such as those of Camacho (2002, 2003, 2006), in modern Portuguese. The present research, thus, claims that the common feature of these constructions is the non-attribution of causality, and that they represent different event conceptualizations. Based on principles, founded on a cognitive-functional approach (GIVÃN, 1993, 1995, 2002, 2005; KEMMER, 1993; CAMACHO, 2002, 2003, 2006; HOPPER & THOMPSON, 1980; POTTIER, 1992; CROFT, 1994, 1998; LANGACKER, 1987, 1991; DELANCEY, 1987; TALMY, 1988, 2000; LAKOFF, 1977), the codification of the non-attribution of causality is analyzed in CrÃnica Geral de Espanha de 1344, a representative historical text in archaic Portuguese, edited by Cintra (1951). In this analysis, answers are sought for the following questions: (a) in the analyzed corpus, which is the most and the least prototypical verbal recourses available for the expression of the non-attribution of causality? (b) which semantic, pragmatical and formal features characterize the different strategies used for expressing the non-attribution of causality? The central hypothesis considers that analyzed constructions codify the non-attribution of causality at various degrees, according to aspects related to the causality notion, such as perspectivization and salience. A large number of occurrences (1061, in total) were collected and analyzed from the perspective of pragmatical aspects such as topicality and informational status; semantic aspects, such as cognitive salience of Affected and of Causative, animacy, affectation type; and formal aspects, such as order and expression. Moreover, all of such occurrences were graduated regarding the transitivity degree and the Grounding. The results indicate that middle construction is the most prototypical of the non-attribution of causality constructions, because it presents less salient causative and is posited in the least degree of transitivity. Passive, most frequent in the corpus and, often, with omitted causative, was characterized as the least prototypical construction because its causative is commonly evoked and it presents a higher degree of transitivity. Impersonal construction, whose causative is frequently inferable, was characterized as more causative and more transitive than the middle construction, however, less than passive. Therefore, the analyses demonstrated that non-attribution of causality is not an isolated phenomenon, limited to the manifestation of an Agent. It is subject to degrees of escalarization which is attached to temporal and aspectual event contours. Because of experiential notion of causality, linked to the idea movement, perfective events are more causal than imperfective ones.

This thesis describes the various uses of the passive voice in Norwegian and Czech. The theoretical part defines the category of voice and describes different ways of expressing the passive voice in both languages. The practical part comprises two largely independent chapters. The first one uses text corpora to explore the ratio between the active and passive voice as well as the frequency of different passive constructions in technical, journalistic and literary styles. The second chapter focuses mainly on methods of translating the passive voice used in Norwegian literature to Czech; however, it also touches the topic of the overall frequency of the passive voice in translation.

The diploma thesis investigates the measurable progress in the ability of upper-secondary school students to form and use the passive voice after having been exposed to two online lessons on this grammar item. The theoretical part describes distance education, its varieties, and the tools that are assumed to make it effective. The empirical part of the thesis is based on the analysis of the two online lessons,the analysis of the students' development based on short pre- and post-tests developed to evaluate the students' knowledge, and an interview with two of the students.The thesis will attempt to reach a conclusion on whether there is a measurable development in students' understanding of the subject matter when taught in an online environment.The thesis proved that despite the distance form of education of the two lessons, the acquisitionof the grammar item was successful.

本研究旨在探討台灣大學生英語被動語態的使用，並且探討台灣大學生是否理解英語被動語態在單句以及篇章的功能。本研究受試者為27位政大英語系大一作文班學生。受試者使用英語被動語態的語料則由三種不同類型的研究工具蒐集而來：中英單句翻譯，英文篇章選擇，與英文作文。 研究結果發現台灣大學生對於英語被動語態沒有完善的理解。受試者在單句翻譯的表現顯示當中文句子裡沒有中文被動提示詞時，受試者翻譯時容易使用錯誤的語態。此發現同時也點出受試者對於英語動詞種類以及英語語意角色這些和英語被動語態密切相關的概念相當陌生。在無法辨別句子裡動詞種類的情況下，受試者無法正確判斷句中名詞的語意角色，因而寫出錯誤的句子。然而，受試者在英文篇章選擇的表現顯示他們了解英語被動語態是一個能夠增進文章句子之間的連結以及一貫性的句型結構。而受試者在英文作文的表現也顯示了他們知道如何實際運用英語被動語態來建立自己文章中所要闡述的主題，並進一步強化文章整體結構。 為了進一步理解台灣大學生對於英語被動語態的知識如何形成，本研究也檢視了目前台灣國中以及高中所使用的英語教科書當中，對於英語被動語態的呈現方式以及介紹內容。本研究發現英語教科書對於英語被動語態的介紹多半侷限在此句型結構於單句以及句法的使用，而忽略了英語被動語態在篇章以及語意層面的功能。根據以上的研究發現，本研究亦提出了如何在英語被動語態的教學上加入篇章以及語意層面的介紹，以幫助台灣英語學習者學到更完整的英語被動語態的知識。 / The present study investigates the use of English passive voice by Taiwanese college students. The purpose is to see how Taiwanese college students use English passive voice on sentential and discourse level, and if they understand the functions of English passive voice from their performances. Twenty-seven college students participated in this study. And their uses of English passive voice were investigated with three different instruments, Single-sentence Translation, Passage Completion and English Compositions. The results of the analysis showed that Taiwanese college students do not have complete understanding on English passive voice. In Single-sentence Translation, the participants fail to recognize the correct voice in translating Chinese sentences when Chinese passive markers are removed. This finding points out that the participants do not have the knowledge of English verb types, their argument patterns, and semantic roles. Because they are unable to identify the type of English verbs in the sentences, they are not aware of the semantic roles of noun phrases accompanying the verbs in the sentences. As a result, they are unable to produce correct English passive sentences. In Passage Completion, however, the participants’ performances indicate they understand English passive voice is a useful device in facilitating the connections between the sentences and maintaining thematic progression of passages. In English Compositions, it is found that the participants demonstrated ways of using English passive voice that are not observed in the previous two research instruments. Their performances show that they know how to use this structure to facilitate the cohesion as well as coherence of their writings, and how to use English passive voice to establish the idea they want to elaborate on in the paragraph. To see how Taiwanese EFL learners build up their knowledge of English passive voice, English textbooks of junior high and senior high school are reviewed to see how this structure is presented. It is found that much emphasis is placed on the introduction of English passive voice on sentential and syntactic level, neglecting the introduction on discourse and semantic level. Based on the findings in the present study, it is suggested that the teaching of English passive voice include the introduction of this structure on discourse and semantic levels to help Taiwanese EFL learners gain a more comprehensive understanding of English passive voice.