Ziel dieser Arbeit war die elektrophysiologische Charakterisierung des vor kurzem erstmals von NIESLER et al. (2003) klonierten humanen 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptors. Da dieser Rezeptor-Subtyp ausschließlich im Gastrointestinaltrakt exprimiert wird, ist ein Einfluss auf Nausea und Emesis sehr wahrscheinlich. Es stellt sich demnach die Frage, ob funktionelle Unterschiede zum homomeren 5-HT3A-Rezeptor und zum heteromeren 5-HT3A+B-Rezeptor bestehen, und ob auf molekularer Ebene unterschiedliche Wirkungen emetogener bzw. antiemetischer Pharmaka festzustellen sind. Um die Wirkmechanismen und die Interaktionen eines Pharmakons mit den 5-HT3-Rezeptor-Subtypen beurteilen zu können, erfordert dies genaue Kenntnisse über das biophysikalische Verhalten und die pharmakologische Sensitivität der 5-HT3-Rezeptor-Untereinheiten. Die Experimente erfolgten in-vitro an heterolog in HEK293-Zellen exprimierten Rezeptoren, wobei alleinig die 5-HT3A-Untereinheit in der Lage ist, funktionelle homopentamere Rezeptoren auszubilden. Die 5-HT3E- und 5-HT3B-Untereinheiten können nur zusammen mit der 5-HT3A-Untereinheit an die Zelloberfläche exprimiert werden und funktionelle heteropentamere Rezeptoren bilden. Im Verlauf der Untersuchungen hat sich herausgestellt, dass bei der Transfektion die 5-HT3E- und die 5-HT3B-Untereinheiten im Verhältnis zur 5-HT3A-Untereinheit signifikant schwächer exprimiert werden. Mittels der experimentellen Methode der Patch-Clamp Technik im „excised-patch“ („outside-out“)- und im Ganzzell-Modus war es möglich, die biophysikalischen und pharmakologischen Eigenschaften des heteromeren 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptors im Vergleich mit dem homomeren 5-HT3A-Rezeptor und dem heteromeren 5-HT3A+B-Rezeptor zu analysieren. Bei den Experimenten zur Grundcharakterisierung des humanen 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptor-Subtyps zeigte die Agonisten-Konzentrations-Wirkungskurve mit einem Hill-Koeffizienten von 1,0 einen deutlichen flacheren Verlauf als die Kurve des 5-HT3A-Rezeptor-Subtyps, die einen Hill-Koeffizienten von 1,5 aufwies. Dies spricht für eine geringe Agonisten-Bindungskooperativität des 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptors. Kein Unterschied zeigte sich allerdings in der Affinität zu 5-HT, da die EC50-Werte von beiden Rezeptor-Subtypen im Bereich von ca. 7 µM lagen. Aus dem biphasischen Verlauf der Kurve konnte der Rückschluss gezogen werden, dass bei der Transfektion des heteromeren 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptors der homomere 5-HT3A-Rezeptor parallel exprimiert wird. Dasselbe Verhalten wurde auch schon für den heteromeren 5-HT3A+B-Rezeptor beschrieben (WALSTAB et al. 2008). Bei der Charakterisierung eines heteromeren Rezeptor-Subtyps ergibt sich dadurch die Schwierigkeit, dessen Eigenschaften nicht eindeutig von denen des homomeren Rezeptors unterscheiden zu können. Des Weiteren konnte im Vergleich zum homomeren 5-HT3A-Rezeptor eine schnellere Desensibilisierungszeitkonstante des heteromeren 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptors nachgewiesen werden. Insgesamt deuten die beschriebenen Ergebnisse auf eine erhöhte Sensitivität des Rezeptors für Serotonin hin. Da der 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptor ausschließlich im Gastrointestinaltrakt exprimiert wird, könnte dies ein Hinweis auf eine Beteiligung dieses Rezeptors bei der Vermittlung von Emesis sein. Bei der pharmakologischen Charakterisierung wurden der partielle 5-HT3-Rezeptoragonist Tryptamin, der volle 5-HT3-Rezeptorantagonisten Tropisetron sowie die partiellen 5-HT3-Rezeptorantagonisten Metoclopramid, Tubocurarin, Mirtazapin und der Cannabinoid-Rezeptoragonist Anandamid, welcher eine emetogene Wirkung aufweist, untersucht. Auffällig war ein deutlich flacherer Verlauf der Konzentrations-Wirkungskurve von Metoclopramid (5-HT3A+E-Rezeptor: Hill-Koeffizient = -0,8; 5-HT3A-Rezeptor: Hill-Koeffizient = -1,2) und von Mirtazapin (5-HT3A+E-Rezeptor: Hill-Koeffizient = -0,9; 5-HT3A-Rezeptor: Hill-Koeffizient = -1,3) am heteromeren 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptor. Des Weiteren konnte für Mirtazapin am 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptor ein IC50-Wert von 8,4 nM im Vergleich zu 25,4 nM am 5-HT3A-Rezeptor festgestellt werden. Diese deutlich höhere Potenz von Mirtazapin am untersuchten heteromeren Rezeptor-Subtyp sowie die geringere Bindungskooperativität von Mirtazapin und Metoclopramid am 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptor, stellen einen interessanten Ansatz für eine effektive Pharmakotherapie gastrointestinaler Erkrankungen dar. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit zeigen erstmalig auf molekularer Ebene, die elektrophysiologischen Eigenschaften der humanen 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptoren sowie deren Beeinflussung durch emetogenen und antiemetische Pharmaka. Aufgrund der schwachen Expression der 5-HT3E-Untereinheit gilt es in Zukunft durch einen alternativen Weg der Transfektion, die Effizienz der Ausbeute von 5-HT3A+E-Rezeptoren zu erhöhen. / The aim of this doctor thesis was the electrophysiological characterization of the human 5-HT3A+E receptor which was recently cloned for the first time by NIESLER et al. (2003). Since the expression of this receptor subtype takes place exclusively in gastrointestinal tract, an influence on nausea and emesis is very likely. The question is if functional differences exist between homomeric 5-HT3A receptors and heteromeric 5-HT3A+B receptors, and whether different effects from emetic and antiemetic drugs can be detected at the molecular level. To assess the mechanisms and the interactions of a drug with the 5-HT3 receptor subtypes, knowledge of the biophysical characteristics and the pharmacological sensitivity of the 5-HT3 receptor subunit is required. The experiments were developed in-vitro on heterologous expressed receptors in HEK293-cells, whereat only the 5-HT3A subunit is able to form functional homopentameric receptors. The 5-HT3E and the 5-HT3B subunit can only be expressed on the cell surface and build functional heteropentameric receptors in combination with the 5-HT3A subunit. In the course of the investigations it became obvious that during transfection the 5-HT3E subunit and the 5-HT3B subunit are significantly lesser expressed than the 5-HT3A subunit. Using the patch-clamp technique in the excised-patch (outside-out) and whole-cell configuration it was possible to analyse the pharmacological and biophysical properties of the heteromeric 5-HT3A+E receptor compared with the homomeric 5-HT3A-receptor and the heteromeric 5-HT3A+B receptor. During the characterisation of the human 5-HT3A+E receptor subtype, the agonist concentration-response curve with the hillslope of 1,0 showed a significant flatter course than the graph of the 5-HT3A receptor subtype with a hillslope of 1,5. This indicates a diminished agonist binding-cooperativeness of the 5-HT3A+E receptor. No difference could be detected in the affinity to 5-HT, since the EC50 values of both receptor-subtypes were at the range of 7 µM. The biphasic course of the graph showed that by transfection of the heteromeric 5-HT3A+E receptor the homomeric 5-HT3A-receptor is expressed parallel. The same properties were described also for the 5-HT3A+B receptor (WALSTAB et al. 2008). Therefore it is difficult to distinguish the properties of a homomeric receptor by characterisation of a heteromeric receptor subtype. Furthermore, a faster desensitization of the heteromeric 5-HT3A+E-receptor could be demonstrated in comparison to homomeric 5-HT3A-receptor. Overall, the results described above indicate an increased sensitivity to the receptor for serotonin. As the 5-HT3A+E receptor is expressed exclusively in the gastro-intestinal tract, this could be an indication of involvement of this receptor in the mediation of emesis. During the pharmacological characterisation the partial 5-HT3 receptor agonist tryptamine, the full 5-HT3 receptor antagonist tropisetron as well as the partial 5-HT3 receptor antagonists metoclopramide, tubocurarin, mirtazapin and the cannabinoid receptor agonist anandamide, which has an emetic effect, were examined. The agonist concentration-response curve of metoclopramide (5-HT3A+E receptor: hillslope = -0,8; 5-HT3A receptor: hillslope = -1,2) and of mirtazapin (5-HT3A+E receptor: hillslope = -0,9; 5-HT3A receptor: hillslope = -1,3) showed a significant flatter course at the 5-HT3A+E receptor. Mirtazapin has an IC50 value of 8,4 nM at the 5-HT3A+E receptor in comparison to 25,4 nM at the 5-HT3A receptor. This significant higher potency of mirtazapin at the heteromeric 5-HT3 receptor subtype and the decreased binding-cooperativeness of mirtazapin and meteclopramide at the 5-HT3A+E receptor represent interesting approaches for an effective pharmacotherapy for gastrointestinal diseases. For the first time the results of this thesis showed the electrophysiological properties of the human 5-HT3A+E receptors and their interference by emetic and antiemetic drugs on the molecular level. Due to the decreased expression of 5-HT3E subunit, the goal for the future is to find an alternative way of transfection which increases the rate of yield for the 5-HT3A+E receptors.

Les canaux TREK sont des canaux mécano- et thermosensibles appartenant à la famille des canaux potassiques de fond à deux domaines pore, qui jouent un rôle majeur dans l’excitabilité cellulaire. Notre équipe a précédemment montré que les canaux TREK-1 et TRAAK sont des senseurs moléculaires essentiels dans la perception polymodale de la douleur et qu’ils interviennent dans l’excitabilité des nocicepteurs, modulant ainsi le message douloureux.Dans la première partie de ma thèse, j’ai étudié l’implication du canal TREK-1 dans l’activité antalgique de la morphine. Nous avons mis en évidence un couplage fonctionnel entre les canaux TREK-1 et TREK-2 et les récepteurs opioïdes µ et δ. Nous avons également montré que le canal TREK-1 est impliqué dans les effets périphériques et centraux de la morphine. Ces travaux ont permis d’impliquer le canal TREK-1 comme un médiateur de l’analgésie induite par la morphine agissant en aval des récepteurs aux opioïdes. La seconde partie de ma thèse a porté sur l‘étude du rôle du canal TREK-2 dans la perception de la douleur. En étudiant l’impact des canaux TREK-2 sur l’activité des nocicepteurs, j’ai pu montrer que le canal TREK-2 module la perception thermique des nocicepteurs cutanés. Toutefois, l’activité de TREK-2 dans la thermo perception est complémentaire de celle déjà rapportée pour les canaux TREK car, contrairement à TREK-1 et TRAAK, TREK-2 intervient dans la perception de températures non nocives. En conclusion, ces travaux montrent que les canaux potassiques de fond TREK jouent un rôle essentiel dans la perception et la modulation du message douloureux et pourraient être des cibles intéressantes pour le traitement de la douleur. / TREK channels are mechano- and thermo-activated channels belonging to the two-pore domains potassium channels family, which play a major role in neuronal excitability and cell firing. Our group previously demonstrated that TREK-1 and TRAAK channels are essential molecular sensors in polymodal pain perception and that they are involved in the excitability of nociceptors, thus modulating the nociceptive message. In the first part of this work, I investigated the implication of TREK-1 channel in the analgesic action of morphine, one of the most used analgesic. We reveal a functional coupling between TREK-1 and TREK-2 channels and opioid receptors µ and δ. We also show that TREK-1 channel is involved in peripheral and central effects of morphine. This work demonstrate that TREK-1 channel, downstream of the µOR, is an important mediator of morphine induced analgesia. During the second part of my work, I investigated the role of TREK-2 channel in pain perception. I assessed the impact of this channel on nociceptors and we reveal that TREK-2 channel modulates thermal perception of cutaneous nociceptors. However, we show that TREK-2 activity in thermal perception complements the one already reported for TREK-1 and TRAAK channels. Whilst TREK-1 and TRAAK are involved in noxious temperatures perception, TREK-2 intervene in non-aversive temperatures detection. Taken together, these results show that background potassium channels TREK are major contributors to pain message perception and transmission and that they might be interesting targets for the treatment of pain.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:28:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 HermanyMV_DISSERT.pdf: 1765987 bytes, checksum: dedd84315ca1c69652d27407ffd67d85 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-03-04 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Recently, genetically encoded optical indicators have emerged as noninvasive tools of high spatial and temporal resolution utilized to monitor the activity of individual neurons and specific neuronal populations. The increasing number of new optogenetic indicators, together with the absence of comparisons under identical conditions, has generated difficulty in choosing the most appropriate protein, depending on the experimental design. Therefore, the purpose of our study was to compare three recently developed reporter proteins: the calcium indicators GCaMP3 and R-GECO1, and the voltage indicator VSFP butterfly1.2. These probes were expressed in hippocampal neurons in culture, which were subjected to patchclamp recordings and optical imaging. The three groups (each one expressing a protein) exhibited similar values of membrane potential (in mV, GCaMP3: -56 ?8.0, R-GECO1: -57 ?2.5; VSFP: -60 ?3.9, p = 0.86); however, the group of neurons expressing VSFP showed a lower average of input resistance than the other groups (in Mohms, GCaMP3: 161 ?18.3; GECO1-R: 128 ?15.3; VSFP: 94 ?14.0, p = 0.02). Each neuron was submitted to current injections at different frequencies (10 Hz, 5 Hz, 3 Hz, 1.5 Hz, and 0.7 Hz) and their fluorescence responses were recorded in time. In our study, only 26.7% (4/15) of the neurons expressing VSFP showed detectable fluorescence signal in response to action potentials (APs). The average signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) obtained in response to five spikes (at 10 Hz) was small (1.3 ? 0.21), however the rapid kinetics of the VSFP allowed discrimination of APs as individual peaks, with detection of 53% of the evoked APs. Frequencies below 5 Hz and subthreshold signals were undetectable due to high noise. On the other hand, calcium indicators showed the greatest change in fluorescence following the same protocol (five APs at 10 Hz). Among the GCaMP3 expressing neurons, 80% (8/10) exhibited signal, with an average SNR value of 21 ?6.69 (soma), while for the R-GECO1 neurons, 50% (2/4) of the neurons had signal, with a mean SNR value of 52 ?19.7 (soma). For protocols at 10 Hz, 54% of the evoked APs were detected with GCaMP3 and 85% with R-GECO1. APs were detectable in all the analyzed frequencies and fluorescence signals were detected from subthreshold depolarizations as well. Because GCaMP3 is the most likely to yield fluorescence signal and with high SNR, some experiments were performed only with this probe. We demonstrate that GCaMP3 is effective in detecting synaptic inputs (involving Ca2+ influx), with high spatial and temporal resolution. Differences were also observed between the SNR values resulting from evoked APs, compared to spontaneous APs. In recordings of groups of cells, GCaMP3 showed clear discrimination between activated and silent cells, and reveals itself as a potential tool in studies of neuronal synchronization. Thus, our results indicate that the presently available calcium indicators allow detailed studies on neuronal communication, ranging from individual dendritic spines to the investigation of events of synchrony in neuronal networks genetically defined. In contrast, studies employing VSFPs represent a promising technology for monitoring neural activity and, although still to be improved, they may become more appropriate than calcium indicators, since neurons work on a time scale faster than events of calcium may foresee / Neur?nios se comunicam por meio de sinapses, trocando mensagens capazes de modificar o potencial de membrana de outros neur?nios. Demonstrar o papel desses sinais e decodificar essa linguagem el?trica representa o grande objetivo da neuroci?ncia moderna. Atualmente, a eletrofisiologia ? o ramo da neuroci?ncia capaz de investigar esses recursos el?tricos de neur?nios - que v?o desde registros de condut?ncia e comportamento cin?tico de canais i?nicos individuais at? a demonstra??o de neur?nios individuais implicados em comportamentos complexos. Nesse sentido, diferentes estados cerebrais e comportamentos implicam o recrutamento de grandes conjuntos de neur?nios se comunicando em um estado coerente, din?mico. Al?m disso, essas grandes popula??es s?o formadas por diversos subtipos neuronais cuja an?lise requer t?nicas que possibilitem uma resolu??o temporal e espacial de c?lulas individuais e, prefencialmente, de subtipos espec?ficos. Apenas recentemente, indicadores ?pticos geneticamente codificados surgiram como ferramentas n?o invasivas de alta resolu??o espacial e temporal utilizados para monitorar a atividade de neur?nios individuais e popula??es neuronais espec?ficas. O n?mero crescente de novos indicadores optogen?ticos, juntamente com a aus?ncia de compara??es em condi??es id?nticas, gerou dificuldade em escolher a mais adequada das prote?nas, dependendo do desenho experimental. Portanto, o objetivo deste estudo foi comparar tr?s prote?nas rep?rter recentemente desenvolvidas: os indicadores de c?lcio GCaMP3 e R-GECO1, e o indicador de voltagem VSFP butterfly1.2. Foram expressos em neur?nios do hipocampo em cultura, os quais foram submetidos a registros de patch-clamp e de imageamento ?ptico. Os tr?s grupos (cada um expressando uma prote?na) exibiram valores semelhantes de potencial de membrana (em mV, GCaMP3: -56 ? 8,0; R-GECO1: -57 ? 2,5; VSFP: -60 ? 3,9; p = 0,86), no entanto, o grupo de neur?nios que expressam VSFP mostrou uma m?dia mais baixa de resist?ncia de entrada do que os outros grupos (em Mohms, GCaMP3: 161 ? 18,3; GECO1-R: 128 ? 15,3; VSFP: 94 ? 14,0; p = 0,02). Cada neur?nio foi submetido a inje??es de correntes com frequ?ncias diferentes (10 Hz, 5 Hz, 3 Hz, 1,5 Hz, e 0,7 Hz) e as suas respostas de fluoresc?ncia foram registradas. Em nosso estudo, apenas 26,7% (4/15) dos neur?nios que expressam VSFP mostraram sinal de fluoresc?ncia detect?vel em resposta a potenciais de a??o. O valor m?dio de sinal-para-ru?do (SNR), obtido em resposta a cinco potenciais de aҫ?o (a 10 Hz) foi pequeno (1,3 ? 0,21), no entanto a cin?tica r?pida do VSFP permite a discrimina??o de disparos, como picos individuais, com detec??o de 53% dos APs evocados. Freq??ncias abaixo de 5 Hz, assim como variaҫ?es no potencial de membrana subliminares, foram indetect?veis devido ao alto ru?do do sinal de fluoresc?ncia. Por outro lado, os indicadores de c?lcio mostraram maior altera??o na fluoresc?ncia, seguindo o mesmo protocolo (cinco potenciais de aҫ?o a 10 Hz). Entre os neur?nios expressando GCaMP3, 80% (8/10) exibiram sinal, com um valor m?dio de SNR de 21 ? 6,69 (soma), enquanto que para os neur?nios expressando R-GECO1, 50% (2/4) dos neur?nios demonstraram sinal com um valor m?dio SNR de 52 ? 19,7 (soma). Para protocolos de 10 Hz, 54% dos disparos foram detectados com evocado GCaMP3 e 85% com o R-GECO1. Disparos foram detectados em todas as frequ?ncias e os sinais de fluoresc?ncia foram tamb?m detectados a partir de despolariza??es subliminares. Sendo GCaMP3 o indicador mais prov?vel de produzir sinal de fluoresc?ncia e com alto SNR, alguns experimentos foram realizados somente com essa prote?na. Observamos que GCaMP3 ? eficaz na detec??o de inputs sin?pticas (envolvendo influxo de Ca2+), com alta resolu??o espacial e temporal. Tamb?m foram observadas diferen?as entre os valores de SNR resultantes dos disparos evocados, em compara??o com os disparos espont?neos. Em registros de grupos de c?lulas, GCaMP3 mostrou clara discrimina??o entre c?lulas ativadas e sil?ncio, revelando-se como uma ferramenta potencial em estudos de sincroniza??o neuronal. Assim, nossos resultados sugerem que os indicadores de c?lcio dispon?veis atualmente permitem estudos detalhados sobre a comunica??o neuronal, que v?o desde dendritos individuais at? a investiga??o de eventos de sincronia em redes neuronais geneticamente definidas. Em contraste, VSFPs representam uma tecnologia promissora para monitorar a atividade neural e, apesar de ainda requererem melhoramentos, podem se tornar mais apropriados do que os indicadores de c?lcio, uma vez que os neur?nios trabalham em uma escala de tempo mais r?pida do que eventos de c?lcio podem prever

De nombreux processus physiologiques tels que les mouvements stomatiques, l’absorption des nutriments, l’élongation cellulaire et la signalisation cellulaire impliquent des flux d’anions entre les membranes plasmique et vacuolaire des cellules végétales. Ces flux ioniques sont régulés par des canaux et transporteurs membranaires. Les canaux ioniques transportent passivement les ions au travers des membranes selon le gradient électrochimique. Les transporteurs actifs permettent le transport contre le gradient électrochimique de l’ion transporté induisant son accumulation dans un compartiment cellulaire. Dans les cellules végétales, le gradient de H+ entre différents compartiments constitue la principale source d’énergie couplée par les symports et les antiports au transport de NO₃⁻ et Cl⁻. Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai analysé ces flux ioniques avec deux approches. Une première approche a consisté en l’étude fonctionnelle par électrophysiologie de deux protéines membranaires, AtCLCc et AtCLCg impliquées dans le transport d’anions. Dans une deuxième approche, un biosenseur, clopHensor a été exprimé chez A. thaliana et a permis de mesurer simultanément la [NO₃⁻] et le pH cytosoliques in vivo. Les cellules de garde ont été choisies comme modèle cellulaire pour l’étude de la dynamique in vivo de la [NO₃⁻]cyt et du pH. Nous avons mis en évidence que la [NO₃⁻]cyt est influencée par les conditions extracellulaires dans ces cellules. Enfin l’expression de clopHensor en plantes KO pour un antiport NO₃⁻/H⁺ vacuolaire, AtCLCa, et d’un canal anionique de la membrane plasmique, SLAC1, nous a permis d’étudier la contribution de deux membranes dans la régulation de [NO₃⁻] et du pH cytosolique. Les travaux menés ont permis de visualiser l’activité de canaux et de transporteurs d’anions et H⁺ in vivo et de quantifier leur impact sur l’homéostasie du cytosol. / Many physiological processes like stomata aperture, nutrient up-take, cellular elongation and cell signalling involve anion fluxes at the two main membranes, the plasma and vacuolar membranes of plant cells. Specialized membrane proteins form active and passive anion transport systems mediating and regulating anion fluxes. Ion channels are passive transport systems mediating ion fluxes across membranes along the electrochemical gradient. Whereas active transporters work against the electrochemical gradient of the transported ion allowing its accumulation into a cellular compartment. In plant cells, the H⁺ gradient is the main energy source of antiporters and symporters that couple the transport of anions like NO₃⁻ and Cl⁻ to the transport of H⁺. In the presents work, we aimed at analysing anion and H⁺ fluxes at two levels. First, we used an electrophysiological approach to study the functional properties of two anion transport systems acting at the vacuolar membrane, AtCLCc and AtCLCg. We also expressed a biosensor, clopHensor in A. thaliana to dynamically measure in vivo the [NO₃⁻] and pH of the cytosol. We chose stomata guard cells as a cellular model to study these fluxes. Our results illustrate the in vivo dynamics of cytosolic [NO₃⁻] and pH variations in the cytosol of guard cells. Our data show that in guard cells the cytosolic [NO₃⁻] is highly influenced by the extracellular [NO₃⁻]. At last, clopHensor’s expression in plants KO for the vacuolar NO₃⁻/H⁺ antiporter AtCLCa and for the plasma membrane anion channel SLAC1 allowed us to dissect the role of the two membranes in controlling the variation of cytosolic [NO₃⁻] and pH. This work enabled to visualize the activity of an anion channel (SLAC1) and of a NO₃⁻/H⁺ antiporter (AtCLCa) in vivo and to quantify the impact of anion and proton fluxes on cytosolic homeostasis of guard cells.

L’ischémie cérébrale est caractérisée par une interruption totale ou partielle de l’apport sanguine au cerveau, conduisant à une privation d’oxygène et de glucose pour les cellules du cerveau. La série de processus cellulaires qui sont déclenchées par une ischémie cérébrale sont nombreux et complexes. La réduction sévère d’oxygène et de glucose la diminution de la production d’ATP et un changement drastique de la concentration de K+, du pH intracellulaire et extracellulaire et de la production de lactate. La perturbation du métabolisme énergétique au sein des tissus ischémiés conduit rapidement à la dépolarisation membranaire et au relarguage de neurotransmetteurs dans le milieu extracellulaire. Dans le cervelet, l’impact d’un stress ischémique à largement été étudié sur les cellules de Purkinje, seule voie de sortie neuronale du cortex cérébelleux. Il a été montré que le glutamate, relargué par une surexcitation des fibres glutamatergique et par l’inversion des transporteurs du glutamate, est la cause principale de la dépolarisation anoxique des cellules de Purkinje. Cependant, la compréhension de la réponse astrocytaire et l’influence des astrocytes vis-à-vis de l’ischémie ne sont pas encore connu.La cellule de Bergmann est un astrocyte radiaire qui compose un réseau couplé électriquement, formant des interactions anatomiques et fonctionnelles complexes avec les neurones du cortex cérébelleux. En utilisant un modèle in vitro d’ischémie cérébrale, la privation d’oxygène et de glucose (OGD), plusieurs caractéristiques de base de la réaction astrocytaire à l'ischémie sont analysés. Des expériences en patch clamp et d’imagerie calcique sont réalisées sur tranche de cervelet adulte révélant la réponse de la glie de Bergmann à l’OGD par une dépolarisation progressive de la membrane, avec en parallèle une augmentation de calcium cytosolique soutenue. L’enregistrement apparié entre cellule de Purkinje et cellule de Bergmann révèle des différences importantes de réponse à l’OGD entre ces deux types cellulaires. De plus, nous avons mesuré les changements de la concentration de K+ extracellulaire durant l’OGD en utilisant des microélectrodes sensibles aux ions. Nos résultats montrent une corrélation importante entre la dynamique du K+ extracellulaire et la dépolarisation membranaire de la cellule de Bergmann au cours de l’OGD. / Cerebral ischemia is characterized by partial or total interruption of the blood supply to the brain resulting in glucose and oxygen deprivation to brain cells. The series of cellular processes that are unleashed by cerebral ischemia are complex. The severe reduction in oxygen and glucose induces decreases in ATP production and dramatic changes in extracellular K concentration, pH of intracellular and extracellular space and lactate production. The disruption of energy metabolism in the ischemic tissue rapidly lead to membrane depolarisation and neurotransmitters are released into the extracellular space. In the cerebellum, the impact of an ischemic stress has been extensively studied in Purkinje cells, the only neuronal output of the cerebellar cortex. It has been shown that glutamate released from overexcited fibers and from reversal of glutamate transporters, is the principal cause of the dramatic, anoxic depolarization in Purkinje cells. However a detailed understanding of the astrocytic response to cerebellar ischemia and the potential influence of astrocyte to ischemia outcome is still lacking.Bergmann glia (BG) are radial gial cells that form networks of electrically coupled cells underling complex anatomical and functional interactions with the neurons of the cerebellar cortex. Using an in vitro model of cerebral ischemia, the oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD), several basic features of astrocytic reaction to ischemia are analyzed. Patch clamp and calcium imaging experiments performed in cerebellar slices from adult mice revealed that BG respond to OGD with a progressive membrane depolarisation that is paralleled with a sustained cytosolic calcium increase. Double patch-clamp recordings between Purkinje neurons and BG reveal different responses to OGD in these cell types. Furthermore, we measured extracellular potassium concentration changes during OGD by using ion-sensitive microelectrodes. Our results indicate an important correlation between the BG membrane depolarisation and the extracellular K dynamics during OGD.

Die vorliegende Dissertation verfolgt das Ziel, die von Nervenzellen maximal erreichte Signalrate zu bestimmen. Außerdem werden die bislang weitgehend unbekannten Anpassungen einer Synapse an die Anforderungen hochfrequenter Signalübertragung untersucht. Die maximale Übertragungsrate spielt im zentralen Nervensystem eine wichtige Rolle für die Codierung und Verarbeitung von Informationen. Neben den Grundlagen der synaptischen Übertragung und der neuronalen Informationscodierung werden in der Einleitung die anatomischen Gegebenheiten der Kleinhirnrinde und der Moosfaser-Körnerzell-Synapse vorgestellt. Präsynaptische patch-clamp-Messungen von Moosfaserboutons und die erstmals durchgeführten Messungen von präsynaptischen Boutons und postsynaptischen Körnerzellen („Paarableitungen“) werden erläutert. Mit Hilfe dieser Methoden wird gezeigt, dass die Kommunikation zwischen Nervenzellen mit Raten von bis zu einem Kilohertz stattfinden kann. Hierbei ist die präsynaptische Freisetzung von Botenstoffen schneller und effizienter als bisher bekannt. Ein einzigartiges Repertoire präsynaptischer Mechanismen wird charakterisiert und bildet die Grundlage der nachgewiesenen, hochfrequenten Informationsübertragung.

Introdução. O transplante de células é possibilidade terapêutica promissora para muitas doenças neurológicas. Nos últimos anos, a possibilidade do isolamento de células-tronco dos tecidos adultos, por exemplo da medula-óssea, atrai a atenção da comunidade científica, estratégia que minimiza os problemas éticos relativos ao uso de tecido fetal para implantes visando ao tratamento de doenças neurológicas. Entretanto, a eficiência da transdiferenciação de células-tronco mesenquimais em neurônios, bem como os mecanismos envolvidos nesse processo, permanecem desconhecidos. A obtenção de neurônios maduros ocorreu somente em sistemas de co-cultura, o que induz a questão se a diferenciação representa um potencial das células per si, ou se é possível somente devido à fusão com neurônios maduros. Objetivos. No presente trabalho, pretendeu-se verificar o potencial de as células-tronco mesenquimais tornarem-se neurônios e esclarecer os possíveis mecanismos envolvidos nesse processo. Material e métodos. Células-tronco mesenquimais foram isoladas de 20 doadores voluntários normais e caracterizadas por análise de separação celular ativada por fluorescência. A multipotencialidade foi investigada ao se diferenciar as células em condrócitos e osteócitos. A capacidade de auto-renovação foi confirmada pelo ensaio de incorporação de BrdU. Ulteriormente, as células foram diferenciadas por uma semana em meio contendo AMPc, IBMX, ou combinação de ambos, e os resultados foram comparados com o cultivo em meio básico. Diferentes bloqueadores de Ca2+ ou inibidores de PKA foram usados como tentativa de se impedir a diferenciação, ocorrência que foi mensurada com imunocitoquímica para NF-200 (marcador de neurônios maduros). O registro eletrofisiológico por meio de patch clamp foi usado para se confirmar o fenótipo neuronal. As figuras foram configuradas em microscopia confocal. Para análise estatística foi utilizada ANOVA com teste post-hoc. Resultados. As células isoladas expressaram CD90, 105, 44 e 13 mas foram negativas para CD34 e 45. Isto significa que não são de origem hematopoiética; 98,74 ± 0,43% das células incorporaram BrdU em 24 horas. Após o isolamento, foi possível diferenciá-las em condrócitos ou osteócitos. Em situação controle, não foram evidenciadas células positivas para NF200. Por outro lado, ocorreu positividade em 10,75% ± 1,35 (p<0,0001) das células sob IBMX e, em 15,18% ± 1,12, sob a combinação cAMP e IBMX (p<0,0001). Foram registradas correntes de Na+ e K+ dependentes de voltagem, mas não potenciais de ação. A diferenciação foi inibida com PKAi (5,73% ± 0,42, p<0,0001), nifedipina (5,79% ± 0,98, p<0,0001), Ni2+ (7,06% ± 1,68, p<0,0001) e Cd2+ (0 ± 0, p<0,0001). Discussão. Isolou-se uma população de células-tronco estromais da medula-óssea de seres humanos que se mostrou multipotencial e auto-renovável. O aumento da concentração de AMPc no meio elevou a concentração de neurônios para 15%. A diferenciação parece depender da via PKA mas também envolve a concentração intracelular de Ca2+. Conclusão. O correto entendimento de como as células-tronco mesenquimais diferenciam-se pode contribuir para aumentar a eficácia do método e, talvez um dia, tornar possível o uso dessa ferramenta no campo clínico. / Introduction. Cell transplantation has been considered a promising therapeutic approach for many neurological diseases. The possibility of isolation of stem cells from adult tissues, i.e. bone marrow, has attracted the attention of the scientific community in the recent years. This strategy is interesting on avoiding the ethical issues regarding the use of fetal tissue for neural implants. Moreover, the efficiency of the transdifferentiation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into neurons, and the mechanisms involved in this process remain largely unknown. The obtention of mature neurons was described only in coculture systems, what raised the question if the differentiation is a potential of the cells itself, or if it is possible only due to fusion with mature neurons. Objectives. In the present investigation, we aimed to verify the potential of MSCs to differentiate into neurons, and also to clarify the possible mechanisms involved on it. Material and methods. MSCs were isolated from 20 healthy human subjects and characterized by FACS-analysis. Multipotentiality was addressed by differentiating them into chondrocytes and osteocytes. The self-renewal capacity was confirmed with BrdU-incorporation assay. Afterwards, cells were differentiated for 1 week in a medium containing cAMP, IBMX, or a combination of both, and the results were compared with cells treated in basal-medium condition. Different Ca2+-blockers and PKA-inhibitor peptide were used on an attempt to impair differentiation, which was quantified with NF-200 immunostaining (a marker of mature neurons). Patch-clamp recording was used to confirm neuronal phenotype. Pictures were taken in confocal microscope. For statistical analysis ANOVA with a post-hoc test was used. Results. The isolated cells expressed CD90, 105, 44, and 13, but were negative for CD34 and 45, meaning that they were non-hematopoiethic; 98.74 ± 0.43 % of them incorporated BrdU in 6hs. After isolation, they differentiated into chondrocytes and osteocytes. In a control situation, no NF200 positive cell was seen. On the other hand, 10.75% ± 1.35 (p<.0001) of positivity was seen under IBMX and 15.18% ± 1.12 in the combination of cAMP with IBMX (p<.0001). Na+ and K+-voltage gated currents were recorded. Differentiation was impaired with PKAi (5.73% ± 0.42, p<.0001), nifedipin (5.79% ± 0.98, p<.0001), Ni2+ (7.06% ± 1.68, p<.0001), and Cd2+ (0 ± 0, p<.0001). Discussion. We were able to isolate a population of stromal stem cells from the bone marrow of human subjects, since they were multipotential and self-renewable. Increasing the concentration of cAMP raised the percentage of neurons up to 15%. The differentiation seems to be dependent on the PKA pathway, but also involved the intracellular concentration of Ca2+. Conclusions. The complete understanding of how MSC differentiate can contribute to increase the efficiency of the method and thus make possible to use this powerful tool in the clinical practice.

Le récepteur à la glycine est un récepteur neuronal qui appartient à la famille des canaux ligand-dépendants «cys-loop». Avec le récepteur ionotrope GABA ils fournissent la neurotransmission inhibitrice rapide dans le SNC des vertébrés grâce à leur perméabilité sélective au Cl-. Les récepteurs à la glycine participent à différents processus physiologiques comprenant le contrôle de l'activité motrice, la respiration, la sensation de douleur inflammatoire, la perception des stimuli visuels et auditifs. Le développement de modulateurs efficaces des récepteurs à la glycine permettra un contrôle précis de leur activité, ce qui est particulièrement important dans le cas des pathologies des récepteurs à la glycine, comme l'hyperekplexie. En utilisant l'analyse électrophysiologique, la mutagenèse dirigée et l'expression de protéines spécifiques dans un système hétérologue, nous avons identifié les acides ginkgoliques et niflumiques comme nouveaux modulateurs de récepteurs de la glycine, caractérisé leur action sur différentes sous-unités du récepteur et déterminé les sites importants pour la potentialisation ou l'inhibition des récepteurs à la glycine par ces composés. Cette approche est très prometteuse et ouvre de nouvelles voies vers des futures actions thérapeutiques. / Glycine receptor is a ligand-gated neuronal receptor that possesses an ion pore permeable for Cl- and represents an important component of inhibitory neurotransmission in CNS of vertebrates. Glycine receptors participate in the control of motor activity, respiration, inflammatory pain sensation, perception of visual and auditory stimuli. Development of efficient modulators of glycine receptors will allow a precise control of their activity, which is especially important in the case of glycine receptor pathologies, such as hyperekplexia. In the present work we have identified ginkgolic and niflumic acids as novel modulators of glycine receptors, characterized their action on different subunits of the receptor and determined the most probable sites of interaction of the compounds with glycine receptors.

La Sclérose Tubéreuse de Bourneville est une pathologie génétique rare qui se caractérise par la survenue de crises épileptiques précoces à l’origine du développement de nombreux troubles neurologiques tels que des symptômes autistiques ou des retards mentaux. Les épilepsies retrouvées dans la Sclérose Tubéreuse de Bourneville sont souvent résistantes aux traitements pharmacologiques disponibles soulevant la nécessité de trouver de nouvelles approches médicamenteuses plus efficaces pour traiter les patients. Dans cette étude nous avons mis en évidence que l’AppCH2ppA est une molécule efficace pour bloquer la survenue des crises épileptiques dans un modèle de souris pour la Sclérose Tubéreuse de Bourneville ainsi que sur des résections chirurgicales de tissu provenant de patients humains atteints par la Sclérose Tubéreuse de Bourneville. Nous avons montré que les propriétés antiépileptiques de l’AppCH2ppA s’appuient sur une libération autocrine d’adénosine par les neurones de la couche IV du cortex somatosensoriel et d’une activation consécutive des récepteurs à l’adénosine de type A1. Cette activation a lieu spécifiquement au niveau du compartiment postsynaptique et est responsable d’une activation de conductances potassiques et d’une diminution de l’excitabilité des neurones. L’administration d’AppCH2ppA n’est associé à aucun effet secondaire notables sur la santé des souris. Ainsi l’AppCH2ppA semble être un outil thérapeutique prometteur et peu risqué qui stimule des mécanismes antiépileptiques endogènes naturellement sollicités par le cerveau et efficaces pour stopper et limiter la survenue des crises épileptiques. / Tuberous Sclerosis Complex (TSC) is a rare genetic disease characterized by the presence of epilepsies that appear early and in the life of patients and are responsible for the development of several neurological disorders such as autistic symptoms or mental retardations.In TSC, epileptic seizures often resist to pharmacological approaches raising the importance to find new molecules to treat more efficiently the patients.In this study we showed that AppCH2ppA is an effective molecule to block the onset of epileptic seizures in a mouse model for Tuberous Sclerosis as well as on human patients tissues.We have shown that AppCH2ppA nduce an autocrine release of adenosine by the spiny stellate cells present in the layer IV of the somatosensory cortex. This release is responsible for a subsequent activation of adenosine A1 receptors that occur specifically in the postsynaptic compartment of neurons and is responsible for an activation of potassium channels and a decrease of the excitability of neurons. The administration of AppCH2ppA is not associated with any significant side effects on mouse health. Thus, AppCH2ppA appears to be a promising and low-risk therapeutic tool that stimulates an endogenous antiepileptic pathway that is naturally used in the brain and that is efficient to stop and limit the appearance of epileptic seizures.

Les bourgeons du goût contiennent 50 à 100 cellules gustatives. Parmi elles, on distingue les cellules de type 2 et 3, capables d’émettre des potentiels d’action. Les cellules réceptrices (type 2), qui détectent les stimulus sapides dans la salive, ne possèdent pas de synapse. Les cellules présynaptiques (type 3), équipées d’une synapse, transmettent l’information aux neurones gustatifs. Nous avons réalisé des enregistrements électrophysiologiques (patch-clamp) de cellules de bourgeons du goût de papilles fongiformes in situ, dans un épithélium lingual isolé de souris.L’analyse des courants d’action en configuration cellule-attachée, permet de distinguer des impulsions courtes et longues. Dans ce dernier cas, la phase initiale rapide de dépolarisation est suivie d’une dépolarisation maintenue et d’une repolarisation lente. Ceci dénote l’activation de canaux dépolarisants autres que ceux réglant habituellement le décours temporel du potentiel d’action.Les enregistrements en patch-perforé gramicidine, qui n’altèrent pas le milieu intracellulaire, ont permis de perfuser l’intérieur de la cellule avec du césium, bloqueur des canaux potassiques. Le césium permet de distinguer les cellules de type 2 des cellules de type 3 par la présence d’un courant césium-résistant qui correspondrait, selon la littérature, à un courant résultant de l’ouverture d’hémicanaux permettant la sortie d’ATP. Nos observations sont globalement en accord avec les données de la littérature, mais ne supportent pas totalement la classification proposée actuellement en trois types cellulaires bien définis.Les hémicanaux joueraient donc un rôle central dans la communication intercellulaire au sein du bourgeon du goût. Nous avons, à notre connaissance pour la première fois, enregistré des canaux à grande conductance dans les cellules gustatives, en absence d’ion divalents dans la pipette d’enregistrement. Ces canaux, non spécifiques, présentent un fonctionnement complexe avec, outre l’état fermé et l’état de plus haute conductance (700pS), de nombreux états d’ouvertures intermédiaires et un état de conductance résiduel proche du niveau fermé.Au bilan, nos résultats confortent l’hypothèse de l’ouverture de canaux dont la grande conductance laisserait passer l’ATP dans les cellules réceptrices. / Taste buds contain 50 to 100 taste cells. Among those cells, type 2 and type 3 cells are able to produce action potentials. Receptor cells (type 2) detect sapid stimulus in the saliva, but do not possess synapses. Presynaptic cells (type 3) with synapse deliver information to the taste neurons. We performed electrophysiological (patch-clamp) recordings of fungiform taste bud cells in situ, from a mouse isolated lingual epithelium.Analysis of action currents in cell-attached configuration allows discrimination of short and long impulses. In the long ones, the rapid initial depolarizing phase is followed by a slow and a maintained repolarization. This suggests the activation of depolarizing channels other than the ones implied in usual action potential time decay. Gramicidin perforated-patch recordings, which do not alter the inside of the cell, allowed cells perfusion with cesium, a potassic channel blocker. Cesium allows to distinguish type 2 from type 3 cells by the presence of a cesium-resistant current, that may correspond, according to the literature, to the current flowing through hemichannels responsible for ATP release. Our observations mostly agree with data from the literature, but do not fully support the actual classification in only three defined cell types.Hemichannels have a key role in intercellular communication within the taste bud. Thus, and to our knowledge for the very first time, we recorded large conductance channels from taste cells, using a divalent-free pipet. Those non-specific channels have a complex opening mechanism, which, besides closed and upper conductance states (700pS), present many intermediate opening levels and residual states close to the closed state. Our results support the hypothesis that large conductance channels responsible for ATP release open in receptor cells.