The thesis describes the gender pay gap and evaluates it from the view of the European Union and the Member States. It focuses on the measures and instruments that have been developed to tackle the causes of the gender pay gap. The definition of the pay gap is given and the gender and gender roles are described. The gender pay gap as a systematic underpayment of women is measured using adjusted and unadjusted data. The thesis concerns with primary causes of the gender pay gap, such as the horizontal and vertical segregation, differences in human capital, or discrimination. It deals with the gender pay gap at the level of the European Union and at the level of the individual Members States. The role of the European Union is described and assessed as well as its legislative and non-legislative instruments. The focus is on the proactive measures that contribute to solving the primary causes of the gender pay gap. The positive action measures and family-friendly measures are presented.

Background: Marketing communication often uses gender-stereotyped messages to reach their target groups more effectively. Activities like this can have harmful consequences, especially when aimed towards children. Those effects have been found to also contribute to gender inequalities, among other aspects. Therefore, such practices have generated criticism and as a consequence the search for possible solutions. One of them being gender neutral marketing. Purpose: This thesis aimed to investigate gender-neutral marketing with a focus on the children’s toy industry. While taking into account customers’ acceptance, as well as companies’ economic interests, a potential solution for gender neutral marketing initiatives is presented as a result.  Methodology: To get an insight into the requirements of customers’ acceptance for GNM, their thoughts, opinions, and experiences where of high interest. For this reason, an inductive, qualitative approach has been chosen. An exploratory research design, with a sample consisting of German parents, teachers, and psychologist, have been used to answer the research question.  Main Findings: The color pink has been found as a particularly high barrier towards equal playing behavior amongst children and towards gender neutral marketing. Regarding the area of children’s toys, boys have been found to be more restricted than girls. Conducting small steps, while not moving away too far from socially accepted behavior, is the key to a successful implementation of GNM. Delimitations: This study is limited to only German participants. As the sample size is relatively small, different cultural backgrounds would have added further demographic differences and consequently would have complicated the analysis. Therefore the researcher decided to focus solely on respondents of one origin, in this case German. Due to time restraints, the sample size was limited to only 9 Interviews. The lack of willingness from other psychologists to collaborate in the research also limited the sample size. Not chosen as one of the focal points in this study is a differentiation based on educational background. As the area of marketing is too broad, and unreliable for the sample, the researcher furthermore narrowed the topic of this thesis down on the child’s toy industry. As the sample size is relatively small, the respondents were meant to be as similar as possible, in order to analyse and compare their answers. Therefore, divorced or same-sex couples have been excluded from the sample. Please turn to the author if you want access to the transcripts of the interviews (alina.steindl@yahoo.de).

Cette étude de cas, composée de trois articles, examine les diverses sources d’explication de l’écart salarial selon le genre chez les professeurs d’une grande université de recherche canadienne. Le premier article analyse les écarts selon le genre sur les primes “de marché” à partir de données d’un sondage réalisé auprès des professeurs en 2002. Une analyse des correspondances donne une solution à deux facteurs dans laquelle le second facteur oppose clairement les professeurs qui ont reçu une prime à ceux qui n’en n’ont pas reçue. Le genre est fortement associé à ce facteur, la catégorie “femme” se retrouvant du côté de l’axe associé à l’absence de primes de marché. Les résultats de la régression logistique confirment que le secteur d’activité, la fréquence des contrats de recherche, la valorisation du salaire ainsi que le rang combiné à l’ancienneté sont reliés à la présence de primes de marché, tel que proposé par les hypothèses. Toutefois, même après avoir contrôlé pour ces relations, les femmes sont toujours près de trois fois moins susceptibles de s’être vu attribuer des primes de marché que leurs homologues masculins. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats suggèrent que dans un contexte où les salaires sont déterminés par convention collective, la réindividualisation du processus de détermination des salaires — en particulier le versement de primes de marché aux professeurs d’université — peut favoriser la réapparition d’écarts de salaire selon le genre. Le second article est réalisé à partir de données administratives portant sur les années 1997 à 2006. Les contributions respectives de quatre composantes de la rémunération à l’écart salarial selon le genre y sont analysées, soit le salaire de base, l’accès au rang de professeur titulaire, l’accès aux primes de marché et chaires de recherche du Canada, de même que les montants reçus. Les composantes varient quant à leur degré de formalisation. Ceci permet de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’ampleur de l’écart salarial selon le genre varie en fonction du degré de formalisation des composantes salariales. Nous déterminons également dans quelle mesure l’écart selon le genre sur les diverses composantes de la rémunération varie en fonction de la représentation relative des femmes professeurs au sein des unités. Les résultats démontrent l’existence de variations dans l’ampleur des différences selon le genre en fonction du degré de formalisation des pratiques de rémunération. Qui plus est, après contrôles, la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont fortement représentées. Le dernier article examine les mécanismes pouvant mener à un écart selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché chez les professeurs de l’institution. Les processus d’attribution de ces suppléments salariaux sont examinés à partir d’entretiens réalisés avec 17 administrateurs à tous les niveaux hiérarchiques de l’institution et dans une diversité d’unités académiques. Les résultats suggèrent que les différences selon le genre pourraient être liées à des caractéristiques spécifiques du processus d’attribution et à une distribution inégale des primes aux unités à forte représentation féminine. De façon générale, les résultats démontrent que l’écart de rémunération selon le genre chez les professeurs de cette université n’est pas totalement expliqué par des différences dans les caractéristiques individuelles des hommes et femmes. L’analyse révèle que l’écart réside dans des différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché et aux chaires de recherches du Canada et, dans une moindre mesure, au rang de professeur titulaire. Aucune différence n’est observée sur le salaire de base et le montant des primes salariales reçues, que celles-ci soient dites de “marché” ou associées à une chaire de recherche du Canada. Qui plus est, on constate que la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont le mieux représentées. L’accès différencié selon le genre aux primes de marché qui est observé pourrait être lié à certains processus organisationnels qui limitent les probabilités d’octrois à des femmes. Les femmes pourraient être particulièrement désavantagées dans ce système d’octroi, pour plusieurs raisons. L’existence de différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait aux dispositions ou habiletés des individus à négocier leur salaire est évoquée et supposée par certains administrateurs. Un accès limité aux informations concernant la politique de primes pourrait réduire la probabilité que des femmes tentent d’obtenir ces suppléments salariaux. Les directeurs d’unités, qui sont en majorité des hommes, pourraient être biaisées en faveur des professeurs masculins dans leurs évaluations s’ils tendent à favoriser ceux qui leurs ressemblent. Il est également possible que les directeurs d’unités où les femmes sont les mieux représentées n’aient pas reçu d’information sur les primes de marché ou que des traditions disciplinaires les aient rendu réticents à demander des primes. / This case study examines the various sources of explanation of the gender pay gap among professors at a large Canadian research university. It comprises three articles. The first article analyzes gender differences in “market supplements” using data from a survey of professors conducted in 2000. The correspondence analysis produces a two-factor solution in which the second axis clearly opposes faculty who receive market supplement to those who do not. Gender is strongly related to this factor, with the female category on the side of the axis associated with the absence of market supplement. The results of the logistic regression confirm that field of specialization, frequency of external research contracts, faculty members’ values and attitudes towards remuneration and seniority within rank are all related to the award of market supplements, as hypothesized. However, women were still almost three times less likely than men to have been awarded market supplements after controlling for these relationships. Overall, the results suggest that within a collective bargaining context, reindividualization of the pay determination process — notably, the payment of market supplements to faculty — may reopen pay differences by gender. The second article uses administrative data for years 1997 to 2006. We estimate the respective contributions to the gender pay gap of four pay components: base pay, promotion to full professor, access to market supplements and Canada research chairs as well as the amounts received. These are characterized by various levels of formalization. This allows testing the hypothesis that the magnitude of gender differences in pay varies with the extent of formalization of pay components. We also determine how gender differences on each pay component vary according to the relative representation of female faculty members within units. We find some evidence that the magnitude of gender differences varies with the degree of formalization in remuneration practices. We also find that, other things being equal, pay is lower in units with a high proportion of females. The last article examines the mechanisms that may lead to gender differences in access to ‘market supplements’ among professors. The process of awarding pay in excess for the amounts provided for in a collective agreement are examined based on interviews with 17 administrators at all hierarchical levels and in various academic units. Results suggest that gender differences in the likelihood of receiving an award may be related to specific features of the award process and to an unequal distribution of awards to units with strong female representation. Overall, the results show that the gender pay gap among professors at this university is not entirely accounted for by differences in the individual characteristics of male and female professors. The analysis reveals that the pay gap resides in gender differences in access to market supplements and Canada research chairs (CRCs) and, to a lesser extent, to the full professor rank. No difference is found on base pay or on the amounts of pay supplements received, whether they are “market” premiums or supplements associated to a CRC. Furthermore, pay tends to be lower in units where female representation is highest. The observed gender differences in access to market supplements could be due to organizational processes that reduce the likelihood of awards to women. There are several reasons why female faculty members are particularly disadvantaged in this award system. Gender differences in the propensity or ability to negotiate are alleged (and assumed) by some of those negotiating. More limited access to information about supplements reduces the likelihood that women will pursue them. Chairpersons, who are mostly males, may allow gender bias to influence their evaluations of faculty members, perhaps because they tend to favor others like themselves. It may also be that chairpersons from the units where women are better represented do not have access to information about market supplements or that disciplinary traditions make them reluctant to request them.

This diploma thesis deals with the position of women in the labour market, focusing on gender wage differences. It describes the problem of discrimination against women and the different valuation of women's and men's work. In the theoretical part, the thesis focuses on the basic terminology and overview of Czech and European legal regulations, which should ensure an equal access for women and men. Essential part of this work is to analyze the wage gap by using Gender Pay Gap index and the factors, that affects this gap. Wage differences are analyzed at the level of national economy and also at the level of individual proffesional groups. A separate chapter is devoted to analyzing the macroeconomic factors that are considered the most important causes of differences in women's and men's income. The thesis presents statistical data, which explains the different position of women in the labour market and also provides evidence of wage discrimination against women. Results of the analysis are set into the Czech and European context.

Cette étude de cas, composée de trois articles, examine les diverses sources d’explication de l’écart salarial selon le genre chez les professeurs d’une grande université de recherche canadienne. Le premier article analyse les écarts selon le genre sur les primes “de marché” à partir de données d’un sondage réalisé auprès des professeurs en 2002. Une analyse des correspondances donne une solution à deux facteurs dans laquelle le second facteur oppose clairement les professeurs qui ont reçu une prime à ceux qui n’en n’ont pas reçue. Le genre est fortement associé à ce facteur, la catégorie “femme” se retrouvant du côté de l’axe associé à l’absence de primes de marché. Les résultats de la régression logistique confirment que le secteur d’activité, la fréquence des contrats de recherche, la valorisation du salaire ainsi que le rang combiné à l’ancienneté sont reliés à la présence de primes de marché, tel que proposé par les hypothèses. Toutefois, même après avoir contrôlé pour ces relations, les femmes sont toujours près de trois fois moins susceptibles de s’être vu attribuer des primes de marché que leurs homologues masculins. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats suggèrent que dans un contexte où les salaires sont déterminés par convention collective, la réindividualisation du processus de détermination des salaires — en particulier le versement de primes de marché aux professeurs d’université — peut favoriser la réapparition d’écarts de salaire selon le genre. Le second article est réalisé à partir de données administratives portant sur les années 1997 à 2006. Les contributions respectives de quatre composantes de la rémunération à l’écart salarial selon le genre y sont analysées, soit le salaire de base, l’accès au rang de professeur titulaire, l’accès aux primes de marché et chaires de recherche du Canada, de même que les montants reçus. Les composantes varient quant à leur degré de formalisation. Ceci permet de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’ampleur de l’écart salarial selon le genre varie en fonction du degré de formalisation des composantes salariales. Nous déterminons également dans quelle mesure l’écart selon le genre sur les diverses composantes de la rémunération varie en fonction de la représentation relative des femmes professeurs au sein des unités. Les résultats démontrent l’existence de variations dans l’ampleur des différences selon le genre en fonction du degré de formalisation des pratiques de rémunération. Qui plus est, après contrôles, la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont fortement représentées. Le dernier article examine les mécanismes pouvant mener à un écart selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché chez les professeurs de l’institution. Les processus d’attribution de ces suppléments salariaux sont examinés à partir d’entretiens réalisés avec 17 administrateurs à tous les niveaux hiérarchiques de l’institution et dans une diversité d’unités académiques. Les résultats suggèrent que les différences selon le genre pourraient être liées à des caractéristiques spécifiques du processus d’attribution et à une distribution inégale des primes aux unités à forte représentation féminine. De façon générale, les résultats démontrent que l’écart de rémunération selon le genre chez les professeurs de cette université n’est pas totalement expliqué par des différences dans les caractéristiques individuelles des hommes et femmes. L’analyse révèle que l’écart réside dans des différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait à l’accès aux primes de marché et aux chaires de recherches du Canada et, dans une moindre mesure, au rang de professeur titulaire. Aucune différence n’est observée sur le salaire de base et le montant des primes salariales reçues, que celles-ci soient dites de “marché” ou associées à une chaire de recherche du Canada. Qui plus est, on constate que la rémunération est plus faible dans les unités où les femmes sont le mieux représentées. L’accès différencié selon le genre aux primes de marché qui est observé pourrait être lié à certains processus organisationnels qui limitent les probabilités d’octrois à des femmes. Les femmes pourraient être particulièrement désavantagées dans ce système d’octroi, pour plusieurs raisons. L’existence de différences selon le genre en ce qui a trait aux dispositions ou habiletés des individus à négocier leur salaire est évoquée et supposée par certains administrateurs. Un accès limité aux informations concernant la politique de primes pourrait réduire la probabilité que des femmes tentent d’obtenir ces suppléments salariaux. Les directeurs d’unités, qui sont en majorité des hommes, pourraient être biaisées en faveur des professeurs masculins dans leurs évaluations s’ils tendent à favoriser ceux qui leurs ressemblent. Il est également possible que les directeurs d’unités où les femmes sont les mieux représentées n’aient pas reçu d’information sur les primes de marché ou que des traditions disciplinaires les aient rendu réticents à demander des primes. / This case study examines the various sources of explanation of the gender pay gap among professors at a large Canadian research university. It comprises three articles. The first article analyzes gender differences in “market supplements” using data from a survey of professors conducted in 2000. The correspondence analysis produces a two-factor solution in which the second axis clearly opposes faculty who receive market supplement to those who do not. Gender is strongly related to this factor, with the female category on the side of the axis associated with the absence of market supplement. The results of the logistic regression confirm that field of specialization, frequency of external research contracts, faculty members’ values and attitudes towards remuneration and seniority within rank are all related to the award of market supplements, as hypothesized. However, women were still almost three times less likely than men to have been awarded market supplements after controlling for these relationships. Overall, the results suggest that within a collective bargaining context, reindividualization of the pay determination process — notably, the payment of market supplements to faculty — may reopen pay differences by gender. The second article uses administrative data for years 1997 to 2006. We estimate the respective contributions to the gender pay gap of four pay components: base pay, promotion to full professor, access to market supplements and Canada research chairs as well as the amounts received. These are characterized by various levels of formalization. This allows testing the hypothesis that the magnitude of gender differences in pay varies with the extent of formalization of pay components. We also determine how gender differences on each pay component vary according to the relative representation of female faculty members within units. We find some evidence that the magnitude of gender differences varies with the degree of formalization in remuneration practices. We also find that, other things being equal, pay is lower in units with a high proportion of females. The last article examines the mechanisms that may lead to gender differences in access to ‘market supplements’ among professors. The process of awarding pay in excess for the amounts provided for in a collective agreement are examined based on interviews with 17 administrators at all hierarchical levels and in various academic units. Results suggest that gender differences in the likelihood of receiving an award may be related to specific features of the award process and to an unequal distribution of awards to units with strong female representation. Overall, the results show that the gender pay gap among professors at this university is not entirely accounted for by differences in the individual characteristics of male and female professors. The analysis reveals that the pay gap resides in gender differences in access to market supplements and Canada research chairs (CRCs) and, to a lesser extent, to the full professor rank. No difference is found on base pay or on the amounts of pay supplements received, whether they are “market” premiums or supplements associated to a CRC. Furthermore, pay tends to be lower in units where female representation is highest. The observed gender differences in access to market supplements could be due to organizational processes that reduce the likelihood of awards to women. There are several reasons why female faculty members are particularly disadvantaged in this award system. Gender differences in the propensity or ability to negotiate are alleged (and assumed) by some of those negotiating. More limited access to information about supplements reduces the likelihood that women will pursue them. Chairpersons, who are mostly males, may allow gender bias to influence their evaluations of faculty members, perhaps because they tend to favor others like themselves. It may also be that chairpersons from the units where women are better represented do not have access to information about market supplements or that disciplinary traditions make them reluctant to request them.

The diploma thesis deals with the status of women in the labour market. The thesis outlines gender issues and focuses on the principle of equal opportunities for men and women, which has become largely a public issue. The thesis aims to explore two areas in the sphere of employment. The first aim is to detect differences in the status of women in the labour market regarding the level of employment equality and to identify factors that affect them. The second aim is focused on finding differences in the gender pay gap and to identify factors that determine them. The situation of women in the labour market and the wage differences is a statistical examination of data on the Czech Republic. The thesis presents a conclusive explanation of gender inequality in the labour market and the problem of harmonizing work and family life. The legislation is also presented, which represents the efforts of the state to eliminate unequal access to women. Results of the analysis made comprehensive findings of developments and current status of women in the labour market set in a European context.

Altersarmut stellt einen mehrdimensionalen Zustand des Mangels in dem Abschnitt des Lebensverlaufs dar, der für gewöhnlich auf den Renteneintritt folgt. Statistische Daten verweisen auf einen kontinuierlichen Anstieg der Altersarmut in Deutschland im letzten Jahrzehnt. Im Wohlfahrtsstaat basiert die soziale Sicherung im Alter überwiegend auf vorangegangenen Zeiten der Erwerbsarbeit. Die Verschränkung von historisch sedimentierten Geschlechterarrangements mit einem geschlechtstypisch segmentierten Arbeitsmarkt führt zu unterschiedlichen Zugängen zu Erwerbsarbeit und damit zu einer ungleichen Verteilung der Altersarmutsrisiken.

The gender pay gap has been a hot topic during the last decade and legislation regarding pay equity is increasing in Europe. Continuous work with gender pay equity is essential to avoid costly consequences. There are methods today to find unsubstantiated pay differences, but how could one predict the cost of fixing the pay gap? How can the one predict the cost of making an unequal pay structure equal? How may pay equity methods be explained to people not well-versed in mathematical reasoning? To investigate these questions, the study uses literature, simulations in Python, and a workshop to gather empirical data. Simulation is used to analyse different methods of closing the gender pay gap. The workshop was held at the pay equity SaaS company Pihr. Results suggest several methods to close the gender pay gap that vary in cost and perceived fairness. One can never be absolutely certain of the presence or absenceof gender discrimination, but one can make well-informed estimates using different methods of analysis. The results also suggest that pay equity methods should be explained using informal, non-mathematical words, with examples connected to real-world scenarios in a familiar context for the learner. / Lönegapet mellan män och kvinnor har senaste årtiondet varit ett omdiskuterat ämne och juridiska krav om jämställda löner har blivit alltmer förekommandei Europa. Att kontinuerligt arbeta för mer jämställda löner mellan könen är avgörande för att undvika kostsamma konsekvenser. Det finns idag metoder för att hitta osakliga löneskillnader, men hur kan kostnaden att lösa löneskillnaderna estimeras? Hur kan kostnaden att göra en ojämställd lönestruktur jämställd uppskattas? Hur kan metoder för att stänga lönegapet förklaras för människor utan erfarenhet av matematiska resonemang? För att undersöka dessa frågor samlar studien empirisk data från litteratur, simulationer i Python ochen workshop. Simulation används för att analysera olika metoder för att stänga lönegapet mellan könen. En workshop kom att göras på SaaS-bolaget Pihr somär verksamma inom området. Resultaten föreslår ett flertal metoder att använda för att stänga lönegapet, med varierande kostnad och upplevd rättvisa. Det går aldrig att vara fullständigt säker om könsdiskriminering förekommer eller ej. Däremot är det möjligt att göra välgrundade estimeringar med hjälp av olika analysmetoder. Studiens resultat antyder också att metoder för att stänga lönegapet bör förklaras med ett informellt och icke-matematiskt språk, samt inkludera verklighetsbaserade exempel i en bekant kontext för mottagaren.

In the first chapter of this thesis, we investigate the impact of human capital and wage structure on the gender pay in a panel of European countries using a newly available and appropriate database for cross-country comparisons and a comparable methodology for each country. <p><p>Our first question is :What role do certain individual characteristics and choices of working men and women play in shaping the cross-country differences in the gender pay gap? What is the exact size of the gender pay gap using the “more appropriate” database available for our purpose? Giving that there are mainly only two harmonized data-sets for comparing gender pay gap throughout Europe: the European Community Household Panel (ECHP) and the European Structure of Earning Survey (ESES). Each database having its shortages: the main weakness of the ECHP is the lack of perfect reliability of the data in general and of wages in particular. However the main advantage of this database is the panel-data dimension and the information on both households and individuals. The data of the ESES is, on the contrary, of a very high standard but it only covers the private sector and has a cross-sectional dimension. Furthermore only few countries are currently available :Denmark, Belgium, Spain, Ireland and Italy. <p>We use the European Structure of Earning Survey (ESES) to analyse international differences in gender pay gaps in the private sector based on a sample of five European economies: Belgium, Denmark, Ireland, Italy and Spain. Using different methods, we examine how wage structures, differences in the distribution of measured characteristics and occupational segregation contribute to and explain the pattern of international differences. Furthermore, we take account of the fact that indirect discrimination may influence female occupational distributions. We find these latter factors to have a significant impact on gender wage differentials. However, the magnitude of their effect varies across countries.<p><p>In the second chapter, we analyse the persistence of the gender pay differentials over time in Europe and better test the productivity hypothesis by taking into account unobserved heterogeneity. <p><p>Our second question is :What is the evolution of the pay differential between men and women over a period of time in Europe? And what is the impact of unobserved heterogeneity? <p>The researcher here provides evidence on the effects of unobserved individual heterogeneity on estimated gender pay differentials. Using the European Community Household Panel (ECHP), we present a cross-country comparison of the evolution of unadjusted and adjusted gender pay gaps using both cross-section and panel-data estimation techniques. The analysed countries differ greatly with respect to labour market legislation, bargaining practices structure of earnings and female employment rates. On adjusting for unobserved heterogeneity, we find a narrowed male-female pay differential, as well as significantly different rates of return on individual characteristics. In particularly, the adjusted wage differential decreases by 7 per cent in Belgium, 14 per cent in Ireland, between 20-30 per cent Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain and of 41 per cent and 54 per cent in the UK and in Denmark respectively. <p><p>In the third chapter, we investigate causes of the gender pay gap beyond the gender differences in observed and unobserved productive characteristics or simply the sex. Explanations of the gender pay gap may be the penalty women face for having children. Obviously, the motherhood wage penalty is relevant to larger issues of gender inequality given that most women are mothers and that childrearing remains a women’s affair. Thus, any penalty associated with motherhood but not with fatherhood affects many women and as such contributes to gender inequalities as the gender pay gap. Furthermore, the motherhood wage effect may be different along the wage distribution as women with different earnings may not be equal in recognising opportunities to reconcile their mother’s and earner’s role. This brings us to our third question. <p><p>Our third question is :What is the wage effect for mothers of young children in the household? And does it vary along the wage distribution of women?<p>This chapter provides more insight into the effect of the presence of young children on women’s wages. We use individual data from the ECHP (1996-2001) and both a generalised linear model (GLM) and quantile regression (QR) techniques to estimate the wage penalty/bonus associated with the presence of children under the age of sixteen for mothers in ten EU Member States. We also correct for potential selection bias using the Heckman (1979) correction term in the GLM (at the mean) and a selectivity correction term in the quantile regressions. To distinguish between mothers according to their age at the time of their first birth, wage estimations are carried out, separately, for mothers who had their first child before the age of 25 (‘young mothers’) and mothers who had their first child after the age of 25 (‘old mothers’). Our results suggest that on average young mothers earn less than non-mothers while old mothers obtain a gross wage bonus in all countries. These wage differentials are mainly due to differences in human capital, occupational segregation and, to a lesser extent, sectoral segregation between mothers and non-mothers. This overall impact of labour market segregation, suggests a “crowding” explanation of the family pay gap – pay differential between mothers and non-mothers. Nevertheless, the fact that we still find significant family pay gaps in some countries after we control for all variables of our model suggests that we cannot reject the “taste-based” explanation of the family gap in these countries. Our analysis of the impact of family policies on the family pay gap across countries has shown that parental leave and childcare policies tend to decrease the pay differential between non-mothers and mothers. Cash and tax benefits, on the contrary, tend to widen this pay differential. Sample selection also affects the level of the mother pay gap at the mean and throughout the wage distribution in most countries. Furthermore, we find that in most countries inter-quantile differences in pay between mothers and non-mothers are mainly due to differences in human-capital. Differences in their occupational and sectoral segregation further shape these wage differentials along the wage distribution in the UK, Germany and Portugal in our sample of young mothers and in Spain in the sample of old mothers.<p><p>In the fourth chapter, we analyse the combined effect of motherhood and the family status on women’s wage.<p> <p>Our fourth question is :Is there a lone motherhood pay gap in Europe? And does it vary along the wage distribution of mothers?<p>Substantial research has been devoted to the analysis of poverty and income gaps between households of different types. The effects of family status on wages have been studied to a lesser extent. In this chapter, we present a selectivity corrected quantile regression model for the lone motherhood pay gap – the differential in hourly wage between lone mothers and those with partners. We used harmonized data from the European Community Household Panel and present results for a panel of European countries. We found evidence of lone motherhood penalties and bonuses. In our analysis, most countries presented higher wage disparities at the top of the wage distribution rather than at the bottom or at the mean. Our results suggest that cross-country differences in the lone motherhood pay gap are mainly due to differences in observed and unobserved characteristics between partnered mothers and lone mothers, differences in sample selection and presence of young children in the household. We also investigated other explanations for these differences such as the availability and level of childcare arrangements, the provision of gender-balanced leave and the level of child benefits and tax incentives. As expected, we have found significant positive relationship between the pay gap between lone and partnered mothers and the childcare, take-up and cash and tax benefits policies. Therefore improving these family policies would reduce the raw pay gap observed. <p> / Doctorat en Sciences économiques et de gestion / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished