Notre thèse étudie l'interaction entre un syndicat, la Fédération de l'Education Nationale et sa principale minorité, le courant " unitaire ", entre 1944 et 1959. Celui-ci, adepte d'un syndicalisme combatif et animé notamment par les enseignants communistes, représente un courant d'idée militant habituellement cristallisé dans un syndicat distinct. Il refuse l'autonomie de la FEN en 1948 et maintient le lien avec la CGT grâce à l'affiliation simultanée à la FEN et à la FEN-CGT. Ce système original disparaît en 1954, sous l'impulsion du PCF. L'analyse des pratiques et représentations syndicales montre l'émergence d'un modèle FEN, caractérisé par une syndicalisation de masse, une fonction de représentation des identités professionnelles et de participation à la gestion du monde enseignant, la canalisation des divergences internes par le biais des tendances et enfin le partenariat avec le parti socialiste. La FEN se donne en exemple d'unité syndicale. Doté d'une identité souple, le courant unitaire apporte sa contribution, d'abord par sa ferme opposition qui pousse la majorité à préciser ces options, puis par son ralliement à partir de 1954. Renonçant à faire vivre une conception alternative, mais forcément minoritaire, du syndicalisme enseignant, le courant unitaire effectue une critique interne du modèle FEN, dont il constitue une version musclée.

Este trabalho apresenta uma análise completa da qualidade de voz esperada em serviços de VoIP quando prestados sobre a plataforma WLAN IEEE 802.11g. Diferentemente da maior parte da literatura, este estudo complementa as informações de atraso, variação do atraso e taxa de perda dos pacotes, com um modelo analítico de avaliação de qualidade de voz proposto pela ITU-T, o Modelo E. Desta forma, todos os fatores modelados como perceptíveis pelos usuários do serviço telefônico são considerados simultaneamente, gerando, por fim, resultados correspondentes à escala de avaliação subjetiva da qualidade de voz MOS, que qualifica a opinião média em: “muito satisfeitos”, “satisfeitos”, “alguns insatisfeitos”, “muitos insatisfeitos”, “quase todos insatisfeitos” e “não recomendado”. O código do simulador NS-2 foi expandido para prover todas as funcionalidades requeridas neste trabalho. Com ele, diferentes cenários de aplicação foram simulados utilizando três dos codificadores de voz mais utilizados atualmente, o G.723.1, o G.729a e o G.711 (com e sem PLC). A funcionalidade centralizada da camada MAC IEEE 802.11, o PCF, também foi estudada, tendo os parâmetros referentes ao período entre repetições do CFP e à máxima duração do mesmo analisados e ajustados de modo a prover o melhor desempenho. Experimentos similares foram realizados para a função DCF, permitindo então uma comparação direta entre os dois modos de operação do nível MAC. Além disso, ensaios considerando outros tráfegos menos prioritários (estações de dados) foram realizados com o intuito de caracterizar a capacidade dos sistemas em diferenciar ambos os tráfegos. / This work is intended to provide a complete evaluation of the voice quality obtained in IEEE 802.11g WLAN environments. In contrast to the major literature, this dissertation complements the traditional network metrics, as delay, jitter and loss rate, with an analytical model for voice quality evaluation created by ITU-T, named E Model. With this model, all factors able of affecting the user’s perception of quality in a telephony service are simultaneously considered to reflect the subjective voice quality scale MOS, which rates the mean opinion as follow: “very satisfied”, “satisfied”, “some user satisfied”, “many users dissatisfied”, “nearly all user dissatisfied” and, “not recommended”. An extension to the NS-2 simulator source code has been developed to provide all the features required by this study. With this ‘customized simulator’, several scenarios have been analyzed considering three of the most important vocoders in the market today, G.723.1, G.729a, and G.711 (with and without PLC). Moreover, the centralized scheme for the IEEE 802.11 MAC, called PCF, has been studied to show the effect of the CFP repetition interval and the CFP maximum duration on its upper bound limit of simultaneous voice calls. Similar experiments have been carried out for the DCF MAC functionality, allowing these medium access modes to have their performance directly compared against each other. Finally, scenarios with low priority traffic (data traffic) have been created to help describing the ability of both MAC functions to deal with traffic differentiation.

Este trabalho apresenta uma análise completa da qualidade de voz esperada em serviços de VoIP quando prestados sobre a plataforma WLAN IEEE 802.11g. Diferentemente da maior parte da literatura, este estudo complementa as informações de atraso, variação do atraso e taxa de perda dos pacotes, com um modelo analítico de avaliação de qualidade de voz proposto pela ITU-T, o Modelo E. Desta forma, todos os fatores modelados como perceptíveis pelos usuários do serviço telefônico são considerados simultaneamente, gerando, por fim, resultados correspondentes à escala de avaliação subjetiva da qualidade de voz MOS, que qualifica a opinião média em: “muito satisfeitos”, “satisfeitos”, “alguns insatisfeitos”, “muitos insatisfeitos”, “quase todos insatisfeitos” e “não recomendado”. O código do simulador NS-2 foi expandido para prover todas as funcionalidades requeridas neste trabalho. Com ele, diferentes cenários de aplicação foram simulados utilizando três dos codificadores de voz mais utilizados atualmente, o G.723.1, o G.729a e o G.711 (com e sem PLC). A funcionalidade centralizada da camada MAC IEEE 802.11, o PCF, também foi estudada, tendo os parâmetros referentes ao período entre repetições do CFP e à máxima duração do mesmo analisados e ajustados de modo a prover o melhor desempenho. Experimentos similares foram realizados para a função DCF, permitindo então uma comparação direta entre os dois modos de operação do nível MAC. Além disso, ensaios considerando outros tráfegos menos prioritários (estações de dados) foram realizados com o intuito de caracterizar a capacidade dos sistemas em diferenciar ambos os tráfegos. / This work is intended to provide a complete evaluation of the voice quality obtained in IEEE 802.11g WLAN environments. In contrast to the major literature, this dissertation complements the traditional network metrics, as delay, jitter and loss rate, with an analytical model for voice quality evaluation created by ITU-T, named E Model. With this model, all factors able of affecting the user’s perception of quality in a telephony service are simultaneously considered to reflect the subjective voice quality scale MOS, which rates the mean opinion as follow: “very satisfied”, “satisfied”, “some user satisfied”, “many users dissatisfied”, “nearly all user dissatisfied” and, “not recommended”. An extension to the NS-2 simulator source code has been developed to provide all the features required by this study. With this ‘customized simulator’, several scenarios have been analyzed considering three of the most important vocoders in the market today, G.723.1, G.729a, and G.711 (with and without PLC). Moreover, the centralized scheme for the IEEE 802.11 MAC, called PCF, has been studied to show the effect of the CFP repetition interval and the CFP maximum duration on its upper bound limit of simultaneous voice calls. Similar experiments have been carried out for the DCF MAC functionality, allowing these medium access modes to have their performance directly compared against each other. Finally, scenarios with low priority traffic (data traffic) have been created to help describing the ability of both MAC functions to deal with traffic differentiation.

Este trabalho apresenta uma análise completa da qualidade de voz esperada em serviços de VoIP quando prestados sobre a plataforma WLAN IEEE 802.11g. Diferentemente da maior parte da literatura, este estudo complementa as informações de atraso, variação do atraso e taxa de perda dos pacotes, com um modelo analítico de avaliação de qualidade de voz proposto pela ITU-T, o Modelo E. Desta forma, todos os fatores modelados como perceptíveis pelos usuários do serviço telefônico são considerados simultaneamente, gerando, por fim, resultados correspondentes à escala de avaliação subjetiva da qualidade de voz MOS, que qualifica a opinião média em: “muito satisfeitos”, “satisfeitos”, “alguns insatisfeitos”, “muitos insatisfeitos”, “quase todos insatisfeitos” e “não recomendado”. O código do simulador NS-2 foi expandido para prover todas as funcionalidades requeridas neste trabalho. Com ele, diferentes cenários de aplicação foram simulados utilizando três dos codificadores de voz mais utilizados atualmente, o G.723.1, o G.729a e o G.711 (com e sem PLC). A funcionalidade centralizada da camada MAC IEEE 802.11, o PCF, também foi estudada, tendo os parâmetros referentes ao período entre repetições do CFP e à máxima duração do mesmo analisados e ajustados de modo a prover o melhor desempenho. Experimentos similares foram realizados para a função DCF, permitindo então uma comparação direta entre os dois modos de operação do nível MAC. Além disso, ensaios considerando outros tráfegos menos prioritários (estações de dados) foram realizados com o intuito de caracterizar a capacidade dos sistemas em diferenciar ambos os tráfegos. / This work is intended to provide a complete evaluation of the voice quality obtained in IEEE 802.11g WLAN environments. In contrast to the major literature, this dissertation complements the traditional network metrics, as delay, jitter and loss rate, with an analytical model for voice quality evaluation created by ITU-T, named E Model. With this model, all factors able of affecting the user’s perception of quality in a telephony service are simultaneously considered to reflect the subjective voice quality scale MOS, which rates the mean opinion as follow: “very satisfied”, “satisfied”, “some user satisfied”, “many users dissatisfied”, “nearly all user dissatisfied” and, “not recommended”. An extension to the NS-2 simulator source code has been developed to provide all the features required by this study. With this ‘customized simulator’, several scenarios have been analyzed considering three of the most important vocoders in the market today, G.723.1, G.729a, and G.711 (with and without PLC). Moreover, the centralized scheme for the IEEE 802.11 MAC, called PCF, has been studied to show the effect of the CFP repetition interval and the CFP maximum duration on its upper bound limit of simultaneous voice calls. Similar experiments have been carried out for the DCF MAC functionality, allowing these medium access modes to have their performance directly compared against each other. Finally, scenarios with low priority traffic (data traffic) have been created to help describing the ability of both MAC functions to deal with traffic differentiation.

This thesis focuses on the investigation and development of an integrated optical biosensor based on enhanced Raman techniques that will provide label-free detection of biomolecules. This is achieved by using hollow core photonic crystal fibers (HC-PCF), nanoparticles, or both. HC-PCF is a unique type of optical fiber, with continuous ‘channels’ of air (typically) running the entire length. The channels serve to confine electromagnetic waves in the core of the fiber, and tailor its transmission properties. Using HC-PCF as a biosensor requires development of a robust technique to fill hollow-core photonic crystal fibers. Though several groups have reported selective filling of HC-PCF’s core, the processes are cumbersome and limit the choice of liquid to avoid multimode behavior. In my Master’s thesis, I presented a simple technique to non-selectively fill all the HC-PCF channels with samples. The non-selective filling preserves the photonic bandgap property of the fiber, and yields an extremely strong interaction of light and the sample that produces considerable enhancement of the Raman signal from the analyte. Up to now, non-selective filling was accomplished through capillary action and it delivered a Raman signal enhancement of approximately 30-fold, which is not sensitive enough to detect biomolecules at the clinical level. Moreover, there were issues of reliability and reproducibility, due to evaporation, filling and coupling light into the fiber. The objective of this PhD research was to overcome these problems by developing a robust optical fiber platform based on Raman spectroscopy that can be used in a clinical setting. I initially focused on heparin, an important blood anti-coagulant that requires precise monitoring and control in patients undergoing cardiac surgery or dialysis. Since the Raman spectra of heparin-serum mixtures exhibits Raman peaks of heparin with poor signal-to-noise ratios, I concentrated on enhancing the heparin Raman signal and filtering out the spectral background of the serum to improve detection sensitivity. Reaching maximum enhancement of the Raman signal required a strong interaction of light and analyte, which can be achieved by using hollow core photonic crystal fiber as I had used in my Master’s research. Using a small piece of HC-PCF I was able to reach an enhancement in the heparin Raman signal of greater than 90-fold. With this degree of enhancement, I was able to successfully detect and monitor heparin in serum at clinical levels, something that had never been accomplished previously. After developing HC-PCF as a Raman signal enhancer, I focused on making the HC-PCF sensor robust, reliable and reusable. This was achieved by integrating the HC-PCF with a differential pressure system that allowed effective filling, draining and refilling of the samples in an HC-PCF, under identical optical conditions. To demonstrate the device’s detection capabilities, various concentrations of aqueous ethanol and isopropanol, followed by different concentrations of heparin and adenosine in serum, were successfully monitored. To further improve the sensitivity of the HC-PCF based Raman sensor, I incorporated surface enhanced Raman scattering (SERS), by introducing nanoparticles into the HC-PCF fibers. The research focused on determining the optimal volume and size of silver nanoparticles to achieve maximum enhancement of the Raman signal in the HC-PCF. The HC-PCF enhanced the Raman signal of Rhodamine 6G (R6G) approximately 90-fold. In addition, the optimal size and volume of AgNP enhanced the Raman signal of R6G approximately 40-fold, leading to a total enhancement of approximately 4,000 in HC-PCF. This was then used to demonstrate the application of a SERS based HC-PCF sensing platform in monitoring adenosine (a clinically important molecule), as well as malignant cells such as leukemia. Finally, I used hollow core crystal fibers to significantly enhance the efficiency of two-photon photochemistry. Although two-photon photochemical reactions are difficult to achieve with a small volume, I accomplished it by using a novel platform of HC-PCF to efficiently execute the two-photon induced photodecarbonylation reaction of cyclopropenone 1, and its conversion to the corresponding acetylene. The simple optical design configuration involved coupling an 800-nm tsunami laser to a short piece of HC-PCF filled with the sample. This allowed me to increase the efficiency of two-photon induced photochemistry by 80-fold, compared to a conventional spectrophotometer cuvette. Thus, this work leads to the use of HC-PCFs to more effectively study two-photon induced photochemistry processes, which was limited due to the difficulty of detecting photochemical events with a small excitation volume.

Fiber based ultrashort pulse laser sources are desirable for many applications; however generating high peak powers in fiber lasers is primarily limited by the onset of nonlinear effects such as self-phase modulation, stimulated Raman scattering, and self-focusing. Increasing the fiber core diameter mitigates the onset of these nonlinear effects, but also allows unwanted higher-order transverse spatial modes to propagate. Both large core diameters and single-mode propagation can be simultaneously attained using photonic crystal fibers. Thulium-doped fiber lasers are attractive for high peak power ultrashort pulse systems. They offer a broad gain bandwidth, capable of amplifying sub-100 femtosecond pulses. The longer center wavelength at 2 ?m theoretically enables higher peak powers relative to 1 [micro]m systems since nonlinear effects inversely scale with wavelength. Also, the 2 [micro]m emission is desirable to support applications reaching further into the mid-IR. This work evaluates the performance of a novel all-fiber pump combiner that incorporates a thulium-doped photonic crystal fiber. This fully integrated amplifier is characterized and possesses a large gain bandwidth, essentially single-mode propagation, and high degree of polarization. This innovative all-fiber, thulium-doped photonic crystal fiber amplifier has great potential for enabling high peak powers in 2 [micro]m fiber systems; however the current optical-to-optical efficiency is low relative to similar free-space amplifiers. Further development and device optimization will lead to higher efficiencies and improved performance.

Cette thèse étudie l’opposition du Parti communiste italien (PCI) et du Parti communiste français (PCF) au bloc atlantique, du début de la guerre froide jusqu’à l’admission de la République fédérale d'Allemagne (RFA) dans l'OTAN. L'approche choisie est d'intégrer les sphères « nationale » et « internationale », pour éviter de limiter l’analyse seulement aux logiques d’opposition de la Guerre froide. La compréhension des stratégies d’opposition de deux partis au bloc atlantique est primordiale, vu que, le PCF et le PCI sont, à l’époque, les deux plus grands partis communistes de l’Europe occidentale, et favorables aux constitutions française et italienne de l’après Deuxième Guerre mondiale. En tenant compte de l’interaction entre enjeux nationaux et pressions internationales, la thèse dresse un portrait de l’évolution des PCF/PCI dans leur opposition au bloc atlantique, en mettant en relief les similitudes et les différences. En s’appuyant sur plusieurs sources primaires, telles que les documents officiels des deux partis et les documents diplomatiques et ministériels italiens, français, russes et américains, elle explique l’évolution de deux partis. Si les conditions de départ, avec l’éviction des gouvernements nationaux des deux partis et la pression accrue des États-Unis et de l’Union soviétique, sont similaires, l’élaboration à long terme des stratégies est différente. En termes généraux, le PCF se caractérise par une stratégie plus « dogmatique », par rapport au bloc atlantique. Par conséquent, la tendance des communistes français sera celle d’une opposition plus attentive à la situation internationale qu’aux enjeux nationaux, avec une inversion de cette tendance qui arrive seulement à la moitié des années 1950, avec la campagne contre la CED. De leur côté, les communistes italiens sont capables, depuis le début et nonobstant les pressions internationales, d’élaborer une opposition plus équilibrée entre enjeux nationaux et situation internationale. Il en résulte que la stratégie du PCI sera plus efficace car, à plusieurs reprises, elle mettra en difficulté le gouvernement italien sur le fond de son choix atlantique. / This thesis studies the opposition of the Italian Communist Party (ICP) and the French Communist Party (FCP) to the Atlantic bloc, from the beginning of the Cold War until the entry of the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) into NATO. The approach chosen is to integrate the 'national' and 'international' spheres, in order to avoid framing the analysis solely in terms of Cold War opposition. The comprehension of the oppositional strategies of two parties to the Atlantic bloc is very important, as the PCF and the PCI were the two largest communist parties in Western Europe at the time, and favorable to the French and Italian constitutions after World War II. Considering the interaction between national issues and international pressures, the dissertation draws a portrait of the evolution of the CPF/CPI in their opposition to the Atlantic bloc, highlighting similarities and differences. The thesis relies on several primary sources, such as official documents of the two parties and Italian, French, Russian and American diplomatic and ministerial documents, to explain the evolution of the two parties. While the starting conditions, with the exclusion from the national governments of both parties and the increased pressure from the US and the Soviet Union were similar, the long-term development of strategies was different. In general, the PCF was more "dogmatic", in relation to the Atlantic bloc. Consequently, the tendency of the French communists was to focus more on the international situation than on national issues, with a reversal of this tendency only in the mid-1950s, during the campaign against the EDC. For their part, the Italian communists were able, from the start and notwithstanding international pressures, to develop a more balanced opposition taking into account national issues and the international situation. As a result, the PCI's strategy was more effective, as it repeatedly challenged the Italian government on its Atlantic choice.

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