The eukaryotic elongation factor 1 alpha 2 (eEF1A2) is a protein normally expressed only in the brain, heart and skeletal muscle. eEF1A2 is likely to be a breast and ovarian cancer oncogene based on its high expression in these malignancies and its in vitro transforming capacity . The goal of my thesis is to understand eEF1A2’s role in oncogenesis. In order to determine if eEF1A2 was a prognostic marker for ovarian cancer, we examined eEF1A2 expression in 500 primary human ovarian tumours. We show that eEF1A2 is highly expressed in approximately 30% of ovarian tumours. In serous cancer, high expression of eEF1A2 was associated with an increased 20-year survival probability. Expression of eEF1A2, in a clear cell carcinoma cell line, SK-OV-3, increased the cells ability to form spheroids in hanging drop culture, enhanced in vitro proliferative capacity, increased stress fiber formations, and reduced cell-cell junction spacing. Expression of eEF1A2 did not alter sensitivity to anoikis, cisplatin, or taxol. In order to examine the role of eEF1A2 in breast cancer, we used a three-dimensional culture system. The ability to disrupt the in vitro morphogenesis of breast cells cultured on reconstituted basement membranes is a common property of breast oncogenes. I found that phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase (PI4KIIIβ), a lipid kinase that phosphorylates phosphatidylinositol (PI) to PI(4)P, disrupts in vitro mammary acinar formation. The PI4KIIIβ protein localizes to the basal surface of acini created by the human MCF10A cells and ectopic expression of PI4KIIIβ induces multi-acinar formation. Expression of the PI4KIIIβ activator, eEF1A2, also causes a multi-acinar phenotype. Ectopic expression of PI4KIIIβ or eEF1A2 alters PI(4)P and PI(4,5)P2 localization, indicating a role for these lipids in acinar development. Therefore, eEF1A2 is highly expressed in ovarian carcinomas and its expression enhances cell growth in vitro. eEF1A2 expression is likely to be a useful ovarian cancer prognostic factor in ovarian patients with serous tumours. Furthermore, PI4KIIIβ and eEF1A2 both have an important role in the disruption of three-dimensional morphogenesis of MCF10A cells. Additionally, PI4KIIIβ and eEF1A2 likely have an important role in mammary neoplasia and development and could be anti-cancer targets.

The phospholipid phosphatidylinositol and its phosphorylated derivatives, collectively referred to as phosphoinositides, form the basis for a multifaceted signaling pathway regulating many different cellular processes in eukaryotic cells. Phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate, PI(4,5)P2, assumes a central position in this complex pathway. It can serve as a precursor for the generation of second messengers but can also act as a ligand to partner proteins. In order to mediate their physiological effects properly, the location and quantity of PI(4,5)P2 and other phosphoinositides have to be tightly controlled by enzymes. In general, phospholipid kinases lead to the activation of the pathway, whereas phospholipid phosphatases attenuate or terminate the signaling cascade. The SAC domain-containing protein 9 from Arabidopsis thaliana has been identified as a putative phosphoinositide phosphatase, but very little has been published on this particular protein. In my dissertation research, I broadened our knowledge of this protein and the effects seen in Arabidopsis plants carrying the mutant allele. I used molecular, genetic, and biochemical approaches to analyze the function of the putative phosphoinositide phosphatase, SAC9. To understand its physiological role, I investigated the cellular effects of a mutation in the SAC9 gene at the light microscopy, confocal microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy levels. My studies show that AtSAC9 is a soluble protein with an apparent molecular mass of 180 kDa and that it most likely is a phosphoinositide phosphatase. Furthermore, I show that the mutation of SAC9 induced unique cell wall defects that most likely have contributed to the stuntedness of the root. However, the cortical microtubule cytoskeleton was not disturbed in elongating root cells. These data are augmented by applying a novel approach for the mathematical analysis of cortical microtubule orientation.

The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) enzymes are well known for their regulation of pro-survival signalling cascades that result in increased cell survival and proliferation. However, most of what we understand is based on Class I PI3K enzymes and much less is understood about the Class II enzymes. Loss of PI3K C2α in mice results in embryonic lethality, or severe glomerular injury with increased morbidity. In contrast, PI3K C2β deficient mice display no apparent phenotype and are healthy and viable. Previous work in our laboratory revealed that administration of a sub-nephritogenic dose of nephrotoxic serum led to an augmented immune response resulting in glomerular damage and impaired renal function, which was associated with T-cell infiltration. Elucidating the immunological basis of this sensitivity was the basis of my project. In response to a subcutaneous injection of sheep IgG in complete Freund’s adjuvant, the spleens of PI3K C2β-/- mice showed prominent germinal centre associated cell proliferation that was absent in the controls. Analysis of splenocyte populations revealed that PI3K C2β-/- mice had an increased population of CD4+ T-cells and when cultured in vitro within a total splenocyte population, the increased CD4+ T-cell population was maintained. However, this effect was lost when T-cells were purified and maintained ex vivo. These data suggest that the increased PI3K C2β-/- CD4+ proliferation may be due to additional factors within the total splenocyte population. B-cell populations from the spleens of PI3K C2β-/- mice had higher CD19 expression compared to B-cells from control mice. Elevated levels of CD19 are associated with a reduced activation threshold. In response to stimulation with a sub-optimal dose of LPS and IL-4 PI3K C2β-/- B-cells underwent increased class switch recombination, displayed increased metabolic activity and remained viable for longer than B-cells from control mice. B-cell lysates from PI3K C2β-/- mice also revealed increased levels of phosphorylated MEK1/2. These data indicate that PI3K C2β may serve as a negative regulator of B-cell function and that loss of this PI3K enzyme isoform activity produces a heightened immune response which may lead to a predisposition to associated pathologies.

Listeria monocytogenes is a Gram-positive facultative intracellular bacterium with a wide ecological niche and causes a number of diseases in human and animals. It invades mammalian host cells and escapes from the vacuoles prior to replication in the host cell cytoplasm and infecting adjacent cells via actin-based mobility. Phosphoinositide (PIP) metabolism is essential to mammalian cells in signal transduction, actin remodelling, endosome dynamics and membrane trafficking. Modulation of host PIP metabolism by bacteria PIP phosphatases is important for pathogenicity and virulence of many human pathogens. In this study the function of two L. monocytogenes tyrosine and inositol phosphatases LipA and LipB were studied in vitro. The lipA and lipB deletion mutants generated in EGDe and InlA strains were not affected in invasion but were attenuated in intracellular growth in Caco-2 and Hela M cell lines but not in mouse macrophages. Deletion of lipA or lipB did not affect the actin polymerisation but caused reduced plaque number in the plaque assay. The turnover of five PIPs in Hela M cells during L. monocytogenes infection were studied by expression of fluorescent protein tagged domains that specifically recognizes individual PIPs. L. monocytognenes did not affect the metabolism of PI4P, PI(4,5)P2, PI(3,4,5)P3 but co-localised with PI3P at 1.5 hr post-infection and with PI(3,4)P2 at 6 hr to 24 hr post-infection. The PI(3,4)P2 effector protein lamellipodin was discovered to be recruited to actin-associated L. monocytogenes at 4 hr to 24 hr post-infection in Hela M cells. This discovery leads to the hypothesis of a novel mechanism of lamellipodin-dependant cell-to-cell spread. The lipA mutant was found to be attenuated in PI(3,4)P2 recruitment and therefore hypothesized to participate in the proposed lamellipodin pathway by converting PI(3,5)P2 into PI5P, leading to the activation of PI3K and subsequent production of PI(3,4)P2. LipB showed partial localisation at the Golgi complex when over-expressed in Hela M cells, and it was assumed to act mainly as a protein-tyrosine phosphatase. In summary, this study provides some evidence on L. monocytogenes modulating host PIP metabolism by the production of inositol phosphatases. It gives us a better understanding on the intracellular growth of this pathogenic bacterium, and on the interaction between host and parasite.

Macroautophagy (autophagy) is a vesicle trafficking process that targets cytoplasmic cargoes to the lysosome for degradation and underlies multiple human disorders. Pioneering work in Saccharomyces cerevisiae defined the core autophagy machinery, but animals possess autophagy regulators that were not identified in yeast. Autophagic flux occurs when autophagy rate increases or decreases in response to various cellular cues, such as nutrient availability. Indeed, dysregulated autophagy rates contribute to disease, making autophagy- modulation a therapeutic avenue to treat cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, and other diseases. To identify novel regulators of autophagy in animals, I investigated autophagy in the context of animal development using Drosophila. In my dissertation, I screened for phosphoinositide phosphatases that influence autophagy, and identifed CG3530/dMtmr6, a previously uncharacterized phosphatase. CG3530/dMtmr6 is homologous to the human MTMR6 subfamily of myotubularin-related 3-phosphoinositide phosphatases. I showed that dMtmr6 functions as a regulator of autophagic flux in multiple Drosophila cell types, and the MTMR6 family member MTMR8 functions similarly in autophagy of higher animal cells. Decreased dMtmr6 function resulted in autophagic vesicle accumulation, lysosome biogenesis, and impaired both fluid phase endocytosis in the fat body and phagocytosis in embryonic macrophages. Additionally, dMtmr6 is required for development and viability in Drosophila. In human cells, lysosome homeostasis requires both the MTMR8 PH domain and catalytic cysteine residue, but only the PH domain is required to maintain autophagic flux. Collectively, this work identified a role for dMtmr6 and MTMR8 in autophagic flux and lysosome homeostasis.

No description available.

<p>The two lipid kinases, diacylglycerol kinase (DGK) and phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate 5-kinase (PIP5K), are vital players of the phosphatidylinositol cycle. DGK regulates the intracellular balance between two important lipid signaling molecules, diacylglycerol and phosphatidic acid. PIP5K produces another key signal messenger, phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. We studied several fundamental aspects of DGK and PIP5K properties. We investigated the topology of the hydrophobic segment of FLAG-tagged DGK epsilon, and showed that a single amino acid mutation P32A caused the hydrophobic segment to favor a transmembrane orientation. We demonstrated that DGKε is localized in both the plasma membrane and endoplasmic reticulum. Our work helped to better elucidate the substrate specificity of DGKε and PIP5K isoforms, and it lead us to discover the motif that is common for several enzymes that exhibit specificity for substrates containing polyunsaturated fatty acids. We studied the organ distribution of murine DGK isoforms, and also expanded our knowledge of DGK expression in diabetic animals, showing that the expression profiles of several DGK isoforms are altered in adipocytes isolated from diabetic mice. Moreover, DGK expression profiles change dramatically during adipocyte differentiation. Taken together, our findings contribute to the growing knowledge about two enzymes, DGK and PIP5K, by providing the fundamental information about the structural and functional properties of these lipid kinases. Both PIP5K and DGK enzymes have a strong potential for use as drug targets. Although at present their clinical importance has not been completely assessed, we believe that their significance as drug targets will be recognized in the nearest future. <strong></strong></p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

TRAF4 est un gène fréquemment surexprimé dans les carcinomes suggérant qu’il y joue un rôle. Tandis que la protéine TRAF4 est majoritairement localisée dans les jonctions serrées (JS) des cellules épithéliales mammaires (CEM) normales, elle s’accumule dans le cytoplasme des CEM malignes. Dans cette étude, nous montrons que TRAF4 possède un nouveau domaine liant les phosphoinositides (PIP) et que ce dernier est requis pour son recrutement aux JS. Des analyses moléculaires et structurales ont montré que le domaine TRAF de TRAF4 forme un trimère pouvant lier jusqu’à trois molécules de lipides grâce à des résidus basiques présents à la surface. Des études cellulaires indiquent que TRAF4 régule négativement les JS et augmente la migration cellulaire. Ces deux fonctions sont dépendantes de sa capacité à lier les PIPs. Notre travail suggère que la surexpression de TRAF4 pourrait contribuer à la progression des cancers du sein en déstabilisant les JS et en favorisant la migration cellulaire. / TRAF4 (tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor-associated factor 4) is frequently overexpressed in carcinomas suggesting a specific role in cancer. While TRAF4 protein is predominantly found at tight junctions (TJ) in normal mammary epithelial cells (MEC), it accumulates in the cytoplasm of malignant MEC. How TRAF4 is recruited and functions at TJ is unclear. Here we show that TRAF4 possesses a novel phosphoinositide (PIP)- binding domain crucial for its recruitment to TJ. Molecular and structural analyses revealed that the TRAF domain of TRAF4 exists as a trimer which binds up to 3 lipids using basic residues exposed at its surface. Cellular studies indicated that TRAF4 acts a negative regulator of TJ and increases cell migration. These functions are dependent from its ability to interact with PIPs. Our results suggest that TRAF4 overexpression might contribute to breast cancer progression by destabilizing TJ and favoring cell migration.

Les cellules endothéliales (CE) qui tapissent la surface luminale des vaisseaux sanguins sont sensibles aux variations des contraintes hémodynamiques engendrées par le flux sanguin comme les forces de cisaillements (FC). Altérer les mécanismes qui détectent les FC pourrait compromettre l’intégrité des CE entrainant une dysfonction endothéliale et le développement de l'athérosclérose, qui reste la cause majeure des pathologies cardiovasculaires. L'athérosclérose se développe initialement au niveau des embranchements et des courbures des vaisseaux, au niveau de territoires vasculaires où les FC sont faibles et où les CE présentent un phénotype «pro-athérogène». Dans ce contexte physiopathologique, mon projet de thèse cherche à identifier un nouveau mécanisme qui pourrait retarder le développement des plaques d’athéromes au niveau des régions vasculaires qualifiées de «pro-athérogènes» où les FC sont faibles. De façon intéressante le cil primaire (CP), protrusion membranaire présente à la surface de la CE, serait capable d’intégrer ces faibles FC. En réponse à ces forces, cet organelle cellulaire pourrait activer des voies de signalisation protectrices nécessaires pour contrebalancer les mécanismes de dysfonction endothéliale. Ainsi, bloquer l'assemblage et/ou la fonction du CP à la surface des CE pourrait participer à l'accélération du processus athéromateux. Récemment, des études ont établi une communication à double sens entre le CP et l'autophagie en réponse aux faibles FC. Parmi les acteurs de signalisation impliqués dans l'autophagie, les phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K), enzymes clés impliquées dans la production de 3-phosphoinositides (3-PI), pourraient être d'un intérêt majeur. En effet, le PI(3)P, 3-PI produit par les PI3K de classe II et de classe III, est impliqué dans la nucléation de la vésicule d’autophagie. Bien que VPS34 (unique PI3K de classe III) soit décrite comme la principale isoforme de PI3K capable de réguler l'autophagie, l'implication de l’isoforme alpha des PI3K de classe II vient juste d’être caractérisée. De façon originale, la PI3KCIIalpha a également été identifiée comme un régulateur majeur de la biogenèse du CP via la synthèse de PI(3)P dans les fibroblastes embryonnaires et dans les cellules épithéliales rénales. Ainsi, l’ensemble de ces données nous ont amené à étudier la PI3KCIIα au niveau de l'interaction entre le CP et l’autophagie dans les CE. Mon travail a particulièrement mis à jour le rôle central de cette enzyme dans le maintien d’une signalisation protectrice essentielle pour garantir la fonction endothéliale. Mon projet de thèse propose d’identifier les mécanismes moléculaires contrôlant l'interaction entre le CP et l’autophagie in vitro dans les HUVEC et le rôle de la PI3KCIIα dans un contexte de FC in vivo dans des souris ApoE-/- capables de développer spontanément des plaques d’athérome. Mes résultats indiquent que la délétion de la PI3KCIIα abolit la biogénèse du CP et réduit le flux autophagique dans les HUVEC. En utilisant un modèle de souris athéromateuses invalidé pour la PI3KCIIα (ApoE-/- PI3KCIIα+/-), mon travail montre que l'absence de l’interaction entre le CP et l’autophagie in vivo pourrait participer à la progression des plaques d'athérome dans les régions vasculaires où les FC sont faibles. Enfin, nos résultats démontrent qu’en absence de la PI3KCIIα et de l'interaction entre le CP et l’autophagie, les CE de ces zones pro-athérogènes ne sont plus capables de réguler leur morphologie, suggérant que ces cellules perdent leur capacité d’adaptation aux faibles FC. En étudiant l’interaction entre l’autophagie et le CP dans les CE, mon projet de thèse permettra une meilleure compréhension des fonctions biologiques contrôlées par les FC dans ces cellules et offrira de nouvelles perspectives dans l’identification de mécanismes moléculaires originaux impliqués dans les premières étapes du développement de la plaque d'athérome. / Endothelial cells (EC) are highly responsive to changes in hemodynamic shear stress (SS) that drags the vessel luminal surface. Altering the mechanisms that detect SS on EC could compromise its integrity leading to the initiation of endothelial dysfunction and the development of atherosclerosis, the underlying cause of coronary artery disease (CAD). In arterial tree, atherosclerosis develops in a pattern that correlates with low shear stress (SS) localized with branches and curvatures where EC present an “atheroprone” phenotype. In this context, my PhD project proposes to identify novel mechanism in atheroprone territories that could delay atherogenic response induced by low SS. Very interestingly, primary cilium (PC) that protrudes from EC surface was shown to integrate these low SS forces and relay protective signaling pathways in order to counteract EC dysfunction. Thus, we hypothesized that blocking PC assembly and/or functions could participate to the acceleration of atheroma plaque progression. Recent findings links PC with autophagy as an important crosstalk in response to low SS. Among the signaling module involved in autophagy, phosphoinositide 3-kinases (PI3K) which are key enzymes involved in 3-phosphoinositides (3-PI) production, could be of major interest. Indeed, a critical 3-PI signaling involved in the nucleation of autophagic vesicle is PI(3)P, a product of class II and class III PI3K. Although the class III PI3K VPS34 is largely described as a master regulator of autophagy, the implication of class II PI3K is less characterized. Meanwhile, PI3KCII was also clearly identified in embryonic fibroblast and renal epithelial cell as a regulator of PC biogenesis via PI(3)P synthesis. Altogether, these data led us to investigate the role of PI3KCIIα as an essential protective signaling hub of EC through PC/autophagy interplay. My PhD project defines more specifically the molecular mechanisms controlling PC/autophagy interplay in vitro in HUVEC and the role of PI3KCIIα in fluid flow context in vivo in ApoE-/- atherosclerotic animal model. My results indicate that deletion of PI3KCIIα abrogated PC biogenesis and decreased autophagic flux in HUVEC. Using a mice model deleted for PI3KCIIα prone to atherosclerosis (ApoE-/-PI3KCII+/-), my work reveals that absence of PC/autophagy interplay in vivo could participate to atheroma plaques progression in low SS parts of the arterial tree. Finally, our data support the idea that EC of atheroprone areas were not able to regulate their morphology in absence of PI3KCIIα contributing to a defect in adaptation to low SS in absence of PC/autophagy interplay. By connecting autophagy and PC, my PhD project improve our understanding of the biological functions of EC controlled by SS and open new advances in the comprehension of molecular mechanisms involved in the first steps of atheroma plaque development.

Phosphatidyl D-myo-inositol (3,4,5)-trisphosphate [PtdIns(3,4,5)P3] contributes to the activation of protein kinase B (PKB) by interacting with the PKB PH domain. PKB is known to be up-regulated in several cancer cell types. Compounds that can display selective inhibition of this kinase have promising chemotherapeutic potential, and inhibition of the PH domain of PKB represents a realistic means by which to achieve this. Analysis of the X-ray crystal structures of apo PKBαPH and PKBαPH bound to D-myo-inositol 1,3,4,5-tetrakisphosphate [InsP4, the inositol head group of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3] led to the design of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 and InsP4 analogues as potential PKB PH domain inhibitors. The synthesis of PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 analogues modified at the C-4 position was investigated, but it was discovered that such compounds were prone to migration of the 1-position phosphate. Subsequently, a range of racemic InsP4 analogues, modified at the C-1 or C-4 position, were successfully synthesised. Advanced progress has also been made towards the synthesis of enantiomerically pure analogues of InsP4.