This study explores the differences in attitude held by newspaper photographers and designers concerning the acceptability of digitally altering front-page photographs. It takes its findings from a summer 2006 survey that asked these two newsroom groups to rate their acceptance of certain common techniques used to change photographs from their original forms. Their answers revealed that designers are generally more accepting of altered photographs than their photographer colleagues. Also, photographers are more likely to find acceptable those photographs altered for technical reasons than for aesthetic ones. Least acceptable to photographers, this study finds, are alterations that affect a photograph's content. / Department of Journalism

What newspaper readers see of an event is detennined by what photographs are seley ted and how they are presented. This thesis attempts to deconstruct the decision-making process around selection and presentation of photographs, with the aim of detennining what factors are taken into account in that process. It is based on the hypothesis that there must be a number of factors involved in decisions about news photographs, although these factors may not necessarily be consciously acknowledged in the decision-making process. The study involves a comparison of how five case studies of incidents of political violence, which occurred between 1990 and 1994 in South Africa, were used'in lrinewspapers. The focus on images of political violence is based on the assumption that politically and visually controversial images will give rise to situations in which gatekeepers will be caned upon to question their decisions. The research is based on qualitative research interviews with the decision-makers involved in the case studies. The analysis of the decision-making procedures is based on the theory of gatekeeping. The interviews are analysed in terms of Lewin's theory offqrces, which suggests that, depending on the context, some factors will manifest themselves as positive forces working in favour of the photograph being selected or well presented, while others will take the form of negative forces. The analysis sets out to determine what factors were taken into account in the decision::making process, what detennined their relative degrees of importance and how those relative degrees of importance determined the final outcome. Following an introduction to the practical case study research, dealing with general issues such as picture policy in newspapers and decision-making procedures, each case study is dealt with in turn. After an outline of the context in which the event occurred, the kinds of pictures that were available to the newspapers are described. Then the decisions taken about which to choose and how to use them are analysed in terms of dominant themes. These are themes such as newsworthiness, gruesomeness of content and concern abo!Jt what other media were using. The analysis examines the way the news context and the decision-making context determine the relative importance of the various factors present. Finally the study looks at the conclusions that can be drawn from the five case studies. The conclusion supports the initial hypothesis in finding that these decisions can be shown to have their basis in a fairly limited set of factors. The different results, from study to study and from newspaper to newspaper within a study, are determined by the changing news context and the decisi~n-making context.

Digital technology has now become pervasive at most publications in South Africa and in America. Pictures are routinely digitised by publications for ease of handling in the layout process, and this makes it relatively easy to alter or manipulate the pictures using computer software programmes. This thesis attempts to gauge the views of South African photojournalists about the digital manipulation of news photographs, and compare these to the views of American photojournalists. It is based on the hypothesis that South African and American photojournalists have different views of what is acceptable manipulation of news photographs, and that their reasons for this will also be different. This thesis also suggests that the manipulation of news photographs is ethically problematic and can damage the credibility of both the photojournalist and the publication in which the photographs appear. The study involves a comparison of the results from a questionnaire given to South African photojournalists and a similar questionnaire given to American photojournalists. The questionnaires were then supplemented by interviews with six South African photojournalists. The thesis then draws conclusions from the responses to the questionnaires and interviews. These conclusions partially support the initial hypothesis, in that there are some differences between the views of South African and American photojournalists, but, on the whole, these are remarkably similar. Photojournalists do seem to find the manipulation of news photographs to be ethically problematic, but they may find the manipulation of other kinds of images (eg fashion or soft news) to be acceptable. South African photographers also find the manipulation of images by other means (eg different lenses or darkroom techniques) to be more acceptable than Americans do. Although the underlying reasons for these views may differ, maintaining the credibility of the photographer and the publication does seem to be the major issue for avoiding digital manipulation. South African photographers seemed to think that if the photographer had done his or her job well, there would be no need for manipulation, and both groups (but especially the Americans) felt that manipulation could often be equated to lying to the reader, and that this might damage their reputation, and that of their publications.

This study has two purposes: (1) to provide a reference tool--a list of the best books, articles, and audiovisual materials about photojournalism, and (2) to make a general evaluation of available literature. In response to a mail survey, photojournalists and photojournalism educators recommended twenty-four sources of information about photojournalism in twenty subject categories. Respondents believe reading about photojournalism is important in helping professionals do their jobs well. But, they do not think there is enough up-to-date information available. Further, a majority think photojournalism literature is unrealistic, poorly written and designed, and ineffective in preparing students.

Photojournalism in South Africa is in the process of undergoing a shift from an analogue past to a fully digital future. This shift to digital has already been completed by many of the newspapers in the United States of America and Europe, and the new technology is seen to have made fundamental differences in the way that journalists do their job. This thesis attempts to explore the differences brought about, as well as the problems experienced by the photographic department at the Sowetan newspaper as a result of the shift to digital. How the development of technology has affected the photojournalist throughout is focused upon in a brief history of photojournalism and examples of how technology has shaped different aspects of journalism in both a positive and negative manner is considered. Exactly what digital photography is, how it has been integrated into American Photographic departments and the changes that the new technology has prompted are also explained. The manipulation of images in the past as well as the relative ease of digital manipulation are covered and concerns are raised about the future implications of digital manipulation. By conductlng participant observation and holding interviews, research data was compiled which allowed conclusions to be drawn about the impact that the shift to digital had had on the Sowetan photographic department. Intentional and unintentional consequences were expected and revealed in the research. The job of the photojournalist and photographic editor was found to have changed but perhaps not as dramatically as expected. Third world factors such as crime, poverty and lack of education were discovered to have resulted in problems that differed noticeably from those experienced by American and European photographic departments. Some expected difficulties were not experienced at all, while other major obstacles, specifically the repairs that must constantly be made to the digital cameras, continue to hamper the operations of the new digital department. Some understanding of the problems that might be encountered by future photojournalism departments that are considering making the shift to digital are arrived at, in the hope that they may be foreseen and overcome.

本研究探討國內電視新聞攝影記者採訪報導颱風新聞的採訪應變與專業意理。研究採取質化的深度訪談法，訪談12名任職於台北有線、無線電視新聞頻道的男性攝影記者。研究結果發現，攝影記者在自然環境破壞與充斥新聞編輯室時效、災難影像競爭壓力的報導現場裡，克服環境、設備資源侷限發展應變之道，而能因地制宜、就地取材、或朝向預防準備方向。當自然環境衍伸出採訪安全風險時，攝影記者會權衡多重面向因素，如：編輯室內控壓力、自然環境、個人因素、與文字記者配合程度而決定是否涉險，過往受傷經歷也讓攝影記者累積採訪智識，判斷環境風險。但是，攝影記者為了應付編輯室壓力、採訪安全問題，常產生目的導向的「偏差介入式」報導手段。 　　攝影記者採訪報導颱風創傷新聞情境，面對死者遺體與受創傷者的情緒壓力會在現場或報導完後有所展現，他們會藉由採訪智識、前輩經驗傳承或自我創建降低心理創傷的採訪方式、調適辦法。且攝影記者對颱風創傷情景的記憶，會連帶觸動他們工作生涯裡初次與印象最深刻的創傷新聞情景，進行跨事件聯想。過往創傷新聞經驗會脈絡性地影響攝影記者採訪報導方式，有助於專業意理養成、但也可能助長偏差的報導手段。 　　專業意理於攝影記者採訪報導颱風新聞的實踐，傾向以新聞本質的記錄真實、快速傳遞訊息而自然而然地發揮媒介助人、批評譴責、動員、關懷、設定議題、解決問題等正向功能。但是，這些正向的媒介功能卻會被攝影記者作為合理化偏差報導手段的藉口，記者僅重視報導可能帶來的正向「結果」，忽視採訪報導方式的「程序正義」。在在反映攝影記者欠缺採訪報導創傷情境的認識、應變颱風報導環境限制的安全策略，與抵抗編輯室內控壓力的適切辦法。 / This study investigates television photojournalists’ adaptation strategies and professional ideology when covering typhoon news in Taiwan. 12 male photojournalists who work in cable and network television stations in Taipei are in-depth interviewed. The findings indicate that photojournalists seek resources from the news venue and adapt them to fit in the local circumstances, or prepare in advanced to deal with the possible restrictions from natural environment due to typhoon disasters. Simultaneously, photojournalists also weigh multiple factors to take risks for news or not, like competitive pressures, newsroom routines, natural environment, individual causes and the degree of cooperation with their counterpart. They evaluate risks of natural environment based upon their hands-on wisdom that is collected from past physical hurt experiences. However, photojournalists under the pressure of competition sometimes use inappropriate ways to shoot news footages and get involved in news events to make sensational typhoon news. 　　Interviewed photojournalists have emotional stresses when facing corpses and traumatized people at the news venue, even after work. Covering wisdom, senior photojournalists’ experiences and suggestions are good way to mitigate photojournalists’ emotional stresses and trauma. The interviewees’ answers to typhoon reporting are often associated with their first trauma news experiences and most impressive event. Those significant experiences in their career will influence photojournalists’ reporting methods towards nurturing beneficial professional ideology or increasing inappropriate covering measures. 　　Photojournalists tend to develop positive media functions, like helping, criticism, mobilization, care, agenda-setting and solutions-developing to accomplish their professional ideology by reporting truth and conveying disaster messages as soon as possible. Nevertheless, photojournalists only focus on “consequentialism” of effective media functions, but discard “procedural justice” of moral reasoning in typhoon reporting. The so-called professional ideology is only optimistic bias among photojournalists.