<p>Aquatic systems are impacted by a wide variety of natural and anthropogenic stressors. Laboratory studies often focus on impacts of a single stressor, ignoring how these stressors may interact. This dissertation focuses on the interactions between polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and two physical stressors (hypoxia and solar radiation). PAHs are ubiquitous environmental pollutants that occur in the environment as complex mixtures, the components of which may interact. Some PAHs are agonists of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), which regulates expression of a number of genes (such as CYP1A) involved in metabolism, often of the same compounds that induced the AhR. PAHs that are AhR agonists have been shown to interact synergistically with PAHs that inhibit activity of CYP1A, inducing developmental deformities in fish. AhR shares a dimerization partner, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator (ARNT), with the protein responsible for regulating hypoxia-induced gene expression, hypoxia-inducible factor 1á (HIF1&alpha;), possibly resulting in competition between the two pathways. Competition would result in decreased induction of CYP1A under hypoxic conditions, possibly resulting in synergistic embryonic toxicity between AhR agonist PAHs and hypoxia. In this dissertation, the results are presented of experiments regarding the occurrence of AhR/HIF1&alpha; crosstalk in fish and the developmental consequences of co-exposure to hypoxia and PAHs. In vitro testing revealed competition for ARNT in which HIF1&alpha; appeared to out-compete AhR. Induction of an AhR-responsive luciferase reporter by several AhR agonists (benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), and polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB126)) was reduced under hypoxia and this effect was eliminated by overexpression of ARNT. Induction of a HIF1&alpha;-responsive reporter was unaffected by BkF and PCB126. BaP caused an ARNT-independent decrease in both basal and induced HIF1&alpha; reporter activity. Attempts to verify this crosstalk pattern in vivo revealed that BaP-induced CYP1A expression was further increased under hypoxic conditions. Induction of hypoxia-inducible genes VEGF and LDHa were unaffected by BaP. The effect of hypoxia on CYP1A expression was not repeated with BkF or pyrene (PY) and the exact conditions that result in hypoxic changes in CYP1A expression remain to be determined. Embryonic toxicity in zebrafish (Danio rerio), including pericardial edema, heart malformations, and death were synergistically induced by hypoxia and BaP, BkF or complex, environmentally relevant PAH mixtures. There was no effect of hypoxia on PCB126 toxicity and hypoxia protected from the pericardial edema induced by PY. CYP1A knockdown mimicked the effects of hypoxia on BkF and PY toxicity and even further exacerbated BkF toxicity under hypoxic conditions, suggesting a role for metabolism in the toxicity. Additionally, since two CYP1A inhibitors (fluoranthene (FL) and á-naphthoflavone (ANF)) had been previously reported to interact synergistically with hypoxia, three other CYP1A inhibitors (dibenzothiophene, carbazole and 2-aminoanthracene) were tested. None of them induced toxicity in combination with hypoxia, indicating that CYP1A inhibition was not the reason for the interaction of FL and ANF with hypoxia. </p><p>A second stressor known to interact with PAHs to induce toxicity is solar radiation. While most studies of the effects of solar radiation on PAH toxicity have focused on the effects of UV light on PAHs already absorbed by an organism (photoactivation), less attention has been paid to the toxic effects of photomodified PAHs. We exposed carbazole to ambient sunlight and subsequently exposed developing zebrafish to the resulting mixture. Photo-exposed carbazole caused developmental toxicity including edema, heart malformations, craniofacial malformations and death that were not caused by parent carbazole; these effects were severely exacerbated by hypoxia and significant mortality was also observed. Additionally, photo-exposed carbazole induced expression of CYP1A and GSTp, likely resulting from agonism of the AhR and toxicity of this mixture was alleviated by morpholino knockdown of AhR. Some photoproducts were identified, but none of them appeared to be involved in the toxicity or supposed AhR induction observed with photoexposed carbazole. The results of these experiments underscore the importance of consideration of the interactive effects of physical and chemical stressors when assessing risks to wildlife populations inhabiting polluted areas.</p> / Dissertation

Atualmente, devido ao conhecimento dos danos causados pela exposição da pele à radiação UV, existe uma tendência em utilizar, além dos filtros solares convencionais, substâncias naturais com potencial antioxidante. Entretanto, o uso de associações fotoinstáveis, pode, além de comprometer a capacidade fotoprotetora, levar à formação de intermediários reativos que podem ocasionar dermatites de contato e reações fototóxicas na pele. Dessa forma, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar a fotoestabilidade e fototoxicidade de formulações fotoprotetoras contendo diferentes associações de filtros solares acrescidas ou não dos polifenóis mangiferina e naringenina. Para o estudo de fotoestabilidade, amostras das formulações foram aplicadas em lâminas de vidro e expostas à radiação UVA e, a seguir, foram feitas análises por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (CLAE), para dosagem do teor de filtros solares e antioxidantes, e por espectrofotometria, para determinação da razão UVA/UVB. A fototoxicidade foi avaliada por meio do uso de cultura de fibroblastos 3T3, submetida ou não à radiação UVA, para determinação da viabilidade celular. Os resultados de fotoestabilidade por CLAE demonstraram que a naringenina, o metoxicinamato de etilexila e avobenzona foram considerados fotoinstáveis. Além disso, foi demonstrado que a adição de mangiferina à associação contendo avobenzona e naringenina, proporcionou um aumento da fotoestabilidade das mesmas. A presença do dietilamino hidroxibenzoil hexil benzoato (DHHB) na formulação contendo avobenzona e naringenina promoveu melhora da fotoestabilidade da naringenina, no entanto não houve melhora da fotoestabilidade da avobenzona. As análises espectrofotométricas demonstraram que as formulações contendo a associação de avobenzona e DHHB (associação 3) apresentaram uma proteção no UVA superior às demais associações, ou seja, que continham avobenzona e DHHB isoladamente. O estudo de fototoxicidade mostrou que a avobenzona e o DHHB apresentaram potencial fototóxico. Quando as associações de filtros solares e antioxidantes foram analisadas, foi observado que a associação de avobenzona e naringenina, combinada ou não ao DHHB, apresentou potencial fototóxico. Dessa forma, esta não é recomendada para o desenvolvimento de formulações fotoprotetoras. A associação DHHB / avobenzona, por apresentar elevada proteção UVA, pode ser vantajosa para o desenvolvimento de fotoprotetores, entretanto a sua associação com antioxidantes deve ser utilizada com cautela e analisada caso a caso. A naringenina não é indicada para fotoprotetores contendo avobenzona, uma vez que esta associação foi considerada fotoinstável e fototóxica. Já a utilização da mangiferina pode ser considerada mais segura, e, além disso, a sua elevada atividade antioxidante pode complementar a eficácia de fotoprotetores. / Nowadays, due to the knowledge of UV-induced skin damage, there is a tendency to use natural substances with antioxidant potential, beyond conventional UV-filters. However, the use of photounstable combinations can compromise the photoprotective capacity and lead to formation of reactive intermediates that can cause contact dermatitis and phototoxic skin reactions. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the photostability and phototoxicity of sunscreen formulations containing different UV-filter combinations supplemented or not with the polyphenols mangiferin and naringenin. For photostability studies, samples of the formulations were spread onto glass plates, exposed to UVA radiation and then analyzed by HPLC to determine the UV-filters and antioxidants concentrations, and also by spectrophotometry to determine the UVA/UVB ratio. Phototoxicity was evaluated by using the 3T3 fibroblast cultures, which was exposed to UVA radiation for the determination of cell viability. The results of photostability by HPLC analysis showed that naringenin, ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate and avobenzone were considered photounstable. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the addition of mangiferin combined with avobenzone and naringenin, provided an increase in their photostability. The presence of DHHB in the formulation containing avobenzone and naringenin promoted an improvement in naringenin photostability, what was not observed for avobenzone. The spectrophotometric analysis showed that the formulations containing the combination of avobenzone and DHHB (combination 3) presented higher protection against UVA than the other combinations, i.e. the combinations containing avobenzone and DHHB, separately. The phototoxicity study showed that avobenzone and DHHB presented phototoxic potential. When UV-filters and antioxidants combinations were analyzed, it was observed that the combination of avobenzone and naringenin, combined or not with DHHB, presented phototoxic potential. Therefore, this is not recommended for the development of sunscreens. The combination DHHB / avobenzone, due to its high UVA protection, may be suitable on the development of sunscreens, however its combination with antioxidants should be used with caution and analyzed case-by-case. Naringenin is not indicated for sunscreens containing avobenzone, since this combination was considered photounstable and phototoxic. Moreover, the use of mangiferin can be considered safer than naringenin and, besides that, its high antioxidant activity can improve the photoprotective effects of sunscreens.

Os hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos são tóxicos e/ou genotóxicos para diversos organismos marinhos e a toxicidade de muitos deles aumenta consideravelmente quando expostos à radiação ultravioleta artificial ou natural. O presente estudo visou avaliar a fototoxicidade do antraceno sobre a mortalidade e o dano ao DNA, segundo o ensaio cometa, de juvenis de pampos da espécie Trachinotus carolinus. Os peixes foram previamente expostos ao antraceno por 24 horas no escuro nas concentrações de 8, 16 e 32µg/L. e então transferidos para a água limpa e expostos à luz de lâmpadas fluorescentes ou à radiação ultravioleta B artificial (RUVB-35µW/cm2). Grupos controle (água e solvente) foram submetidos às mesmas condições experimentais. As exposições na ausência da radiação ultravioleta foram realizadas por períodos cumulativos de 10, 20 e 30h (5h/dia). Para as exposições à RUVB foram utilizados períodos desde 2 até 10h. Na ausência de radiação ultravioleta o antraceno não revelou ser tóxico, mas sua genotoxicidade, medida como danos ao DNA, apresenta resposta dose-dependente. A RUVB é letal para pampos. A exposição ao antraceno seguida de 2h de incidência de RUVB acelera a morte dos peixes em relação à mortalidade dos animais não contaminados. Este resultado revelou a fototoxicidade do antraceno para a espécie. O ensaio cometa pode ser considerado uma ferramenta sensível e útil para avaliar o efeito genotóxico de HPAs em peixes marinhos costeiros. / Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are toxic and/or genotoxic to a variety of marine organisms and under solar or artificial ultraviolet radiation acute toxicity of many of them can be substantially enhanced. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of the phototoxicity of anthracene on the mortality and damage to the DNA, assessed by the comet assay, of juveniles of Florida pompanos, Trachinotus carolinus. The fish were pre-contaminated in the dark by three concentrations of 8, 16 and 32 µg/L of anthracene for 24 hours then transferred to clean seawater to be exposed to fluorescent light or to artificial ultraviolet B radiation (UVB - 35µW/cm2). Control groups (water and ethanol) were carried out in the same experimental conditions. The exposures to fluorescent light were carried out in cumulative periods of 10, 20 and 30 hours (5h/day). The exposures to UVB were conducted during periods of 2 to 10 hours. In the absence of ultraviolet radiation, the anthracene did not prove to be toxic, but its genotoxicity, evaluated as damage caused to the DNA, proved to be dose dependent. The UVB is lethal to Florida pompanos. The exposure of fish to the anthracene following UVB exposure for 2 hours resulted in earlier and higher mortality when compared to uncontaminated fish. These results indicated that anthracene is phototoxic to the pompanos. The comet assay can be considered a sensitive tool to evaluate the genotoxic effect of PAHs in coastal marine fish.

O aumento do conhecimento em relação aos danos provocados pela radiação solar, tanto na faixa do UVB quanto na faixa do UVA, o avanço nas tecnologias relacionadas ao produto e às formas de avaliação bem como a disponibilização de novas moléculas no mercado levaram ao aumento da qualidade da proteção proporcionada pelos fotoprotetores. Entretanto, ainda há preocupações em relação à segurança de alguns filtros solares devido a sua fotoinstabilidade e penetração cutânea. Dessa forma, torna-se necessário o desenvolvimento de novos filtros solares mais efetivos e seguros, que apresentem relevância científica e potencial de inovação. Assim, a presente pesquisa teve como objetivo desenvolver novos análogos ao filtro solar benzofenona-3 e determinar o seu potencial fotoprotetor por meio da avaliação da absorção UV e avaliação da fotoestabilidade, fototoxicidade e atividade antioxidante. Para tal, inicialmente seis análogos ao filtro solar químico benzofenona-3 foram sintetizados visando aumentar o tamanho da molécula e aumentar a sua absorção no UVA longo (340-400nm). Foram avaliados os espectros de absorção no UV e a fotodegradação dessas substâncias. A fototoxicidade das substâncias selecionadas foi avaliada por meio do uso de cultura de fibroblastos 3T3, para a determinação da viabilidade celular na presença e ausência da radiação. A atividade antioxidante das substâncias foi avaliada por meio da quimioluminescência gerada pela reação HRP-H2O2-luminol. Os resultados permitiram demonstrar a importância da relação entre a estrutura molecular dos compostos e sua absorção no UV. As moléculas benzofenona-3 fenil amino (B5) e o carbazol da benzofenona-3 fenil amino (B6) apresentaram maior absorção no UVA, longo e curto, e no UVB, quando comparadas com a molécula de partida (benzofenona-3). Apenas as substâncias que apresentavam ponte de hidrogênio intramolecular (B5 e B6) foram consideradas fotoestáveis. Somente a molécula B5 não apresentou potencial para fototoxicidade aguda. Além disso, essa molécula apresentou atividade antioxidante, o que sugere o seu grande potencial para utilização com filtro solar. / The increase of our knowledge of not only UVB but also UVA-induced damages, the advances on product and testing technologies as well as new sunscreen molecules leaded to and enhancement of quality of UV protection provided by topical sunscreens. However there are some safety concerns involving some UV-filters due to their photoinstability and skin penetration. Therefore it is necessary to develop new safer and more effective UV-filters, which also presents scientific relevance and innovation potential. Thus, the aim of the present research was to develop new analogues based on benzophenone-3, and to evaluate their photoprotective potential through their photostability, phototoxicity and antioxidant activity. For this purpose, firstly six new synthetic analogues based on benzophenone-3 were prepared in order to promote molecular weight enhancement as well as improve long-wave UVA absorption (340-400 nm). The UV absorption spectra and photodegradation of these compounds were also analyzed. Phototoxicity of selected compounds was evaluated by using 3T3 monolayer fibroblast culture to determine cell viability in the presence and absence of UVA radiation. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by HRP-H2O2-luminol induced chemiluminescence. The results showed that relationship between the molecular structure and UV absorption. Me molecules phenylamine benzophenone-3 (B5) and phenylamine benzophenone-3 carbazol (B6) showed higher short and long-wave UVA and UVB absorption, when compared to benzophenone-3. Only B5 and B6, which presented intermolecular hydrogen bond, were considered photostable. B5 did not present any acute phototoxicity potential; in addition it has antioxidant activity, which suggests its high UVfilter potential.

Uma série de oito derivados porfirínicos monocatiônicos, na forma de base-livre e metalados com Zn(II), e tendo grupos metila ou [Ru(bipy)2Cl]+ ligados ao átomo de nitrogênio do substituinte piridil em uma das posições meso do anel, foram sintetizadas e caracterizadas, visando sua aplicação como fotossensibilizadores no tratamento de tumores de pele por TFD. Além de possuírem características anfifílicas que favorecem a sua interação com membranas biológicas, os compostos apresentaram um elevado rendimento quântico de formação de oxigênio singlete, principalmente os derivados metilados das porfirinas base-livre. A baixa solubilidade em meio aquoso, fator limitante da utilização como fotossensibilizadores, foi superada por meio do encapsulamento dos mesmos em micro e nanocápsulas poliméricas, pelo método de coacervação. Duas formulações, uma baseada em hidroxietilcelulose (HEC) e outra na mistura atelocolágeno marinho/goma xantana (ACM), foram preparadas e suas eficiências fotodinâmicas e citotoxicidade frente à células HeLa determinadas. As formulações de ACM mostraram ser não-tóxicas, enquanto os preparados com HEC apresentaram uma pequena, mas significativa citotoxicidade no escuro. Por outro lado, todas as formulações se tornaram tóxicas quando irradiadas com laser de 650 nm ou luz branca proveniente de lâmpada de mercúrio. Dentre as formulações preparadas, as mais ativas foram aquelas preparadas com os derivados porfirínicos base-livre metilados em ACM, provavelmente em virtude da maior eficiência de entrega do composto fotoativo em relação ao sistema polimérico de HEC, aliado aos elevados rendimentos quânticos de formação de oxigênio singlete em relação aos demais compostos. Além disso, o encapsulamento influenciou significativamentente a interação e citolocalização dos fotossensibilizadores, e consequentemente a taxa e o mecanismo de morte celular. Os estudos por microscopia de fluorescência confocal, evidenciaram que as nanocápsulas de ACM são capazes de penetrar na membrana das células, alcançando o citoplasma e liberando gradativamente o composto fotoativo no seu interior. Quando não encapsulada, em solução de dmso, a porfirina se acumula preferencialmente na membrana celular. Consequentemente, neste caso a irradiação levou ao comprometimento da integridade da mesma e o desencadeamento da necrose celular, indesejável na terapia por ocasionar inflamação nos tecidos. Em contrapartida, o tratamento com formulações de fotossensibilizadores nanoencapsulados promoveram menos danos mas favoreceram a apoptose, um mecanismo de morte programada que geralmente leva a regeneração rápida e total dos tecidos, e ausência de processos inflamatórios / A series of eight monocationic porphyrins derivatives as free-base and Zn(II) complexes, with methyl or [Ru(bipy)2Cl]+ groups bond to the nitrogen atom of the meso-pyridyl substituent, were synthesized and characterized aiming their application as photosensitizers in the treatment of skin tumors by Photodynamic Therapy (PDT). Those compounds, especially the methylated derivatives of the free-base porphyrins, are potentially useful because showed higher quantum yields for the photoinduced formation of singlet oxygen and amphiphilic character, that enhanced their interaction with biological membranes. The low solubility in aqueous media, a limiting factor for use as photosensitizers, was overcome by encapsulating them in polymeric micro-and nanocapsules using the coacervation method. Two formulations, one based on hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) and another in the marine atelocollagen/xanthan gum (MAC) mixture were prepared and their photodynamic efficiencies and cytotoxicity against HeLa cells determined. The MAC formulations were shown to be non-toxic, while the HEC presented a small but significant cytotoxicity in the dark. On the other hand, all formulations become toxic when irradiated with 650 nm laser or white light from a mercury lamp source. The most actives, among all formulations, were those prepared using the methylated free-base porphyrin derivatives and MAC, probably due to the higher delivery efficiency of the photosensitizers in relation to the formulations prepared with HEC, associated with their higher quantum yields of photoinduced formation of singlet oxygen of those species as compared with the other compounds. In addition, the encapsulation influenced the interaction and cytolocalization of the photosensitizers, and consequently the rate and mechanism of cell death. The MAC nanocapsules were shown to penetrate the cell membrane by confocal fluorescence microscopy, reaching the cytoplasm where gradually released the photoactive compound. However, the porphyrin derivatives preferentially accumulated in the cell membrane when in DMSO solution. Consequently, the irradiation compromised the membrane integrity leading to necrosis, an undesirable process since cause tissue inflammation. In contrast, the treatment with encapsulated photosensitizer formulations promoted a much lower level of photoinduced damage and apoptosis, a more desirable death mechanism characterized by a complete and rapid regeneration of tissues and absence of inflammatory processes.

Uma série de oito derivados porfirínicos monocatiônicos, na forma de base-livre e metalados com Zn(II), e tendo grupos metila ou [Ru(bipy)2Cl]+ ligados ao átomo de nitrogênio do substituinte piridil em uma das posições meso do anel, foram sintetizadas e caracterizadas, visando sua aplicação como fotossensibilizadores no tratamento de tumores de pele por TFD. Além de possuírem características anfifílicas que favorecem a sua interação com membranas biológicas, os compostos apresentaram um elevado rendimento quântico de formação de oxigênio singlete, principalmente os derivados metilados das porfirinas base-livre. A baixa solubilidade em meio aquoso, fator limitante da utilização como fotossensibilizadores, foi superada por meio do encapsulamento dos mesmos em micro e nanocápsulas poliméricas, pelo método de coacervação. Duas formulações, uma baseada em hidroxietilcelulose (HEC) e outra na mistura atelocolágeno marinho/goma xantana (ACM), foram preparadas e suas eficiências fotodinâmicas e citotoxicidade frente à células HeLa determinadas. As formulações de ACM mostraram ser não-tóxicas, enquanto os preparados com HEC apresentaram uma pequena, mas significativa citotoxicidade no escuro. Por outro lado, todas as formulações se tornaram tóxicas quando irradiadas com laser de 650 nm ou luz branca proveniente de lâmpada de mercúrio. Dentre as formulações preparadas, as mais ativas foram aquelas preparadas com os derivados porfirínicos base-livre metilados em ACM, provavelmente em virtude da maior eficiência de entrega do composto fotoativo em relação ao sistema polimérico de HEC, aliado aos elevados rendimentos quânticos de formação de oxigênio singlete em relação aos demais compostos. Além disso, o encapsulamento influenciou significativamentente a interação e citolocalização dos fotossensibilizadores, e consequentemente a taxa e o mecanismo de morte celular. Os estudos por microscopia de fluorescência confocal, evidenciaram que as nanocápsulas de ACM são capazes de penetrar na membrana das células, alcançando o citoplasma e liberando gradativamente o composto fotoativo no seu interior. Quando não encapsulada, em solução de dmso, a porfirina se acumula preferencialmente na membrana celular. Consequentemente, neste caso a irradiação levou ao comprometimento da integridade da mesma e o desencadeamento da necrose celular, indesejável na terapia por ocasionar inflamação nos tecidos. Em contrapartida, o tratamento com formulações de fotossensibilizadores nanoencapsulados promoveram menos danos mas favoreceram a apoptose, um mecanismo de morte programada que geralmente leva a regeneração rápida e total dos tecidos, e ausência de processos inflamatórios / A series of eight monocationic porphyrins derivatives as free-base and Zn(II) complexes, with methyl or [Ru(bipy)2Cl]+ groups bond to the nitrogen atom of the meso-pyridyl substituent, were synthesized and characterized aiming their application as photosensitizers in the treatment of skin tumors by Photodynamic Therapy (PDT). Those compounds, especially the methylated derivatives of the free-base porphyrins, are potentially useful because showed higher quantum yields for the photoinduced formation of singlet oxygen and amphiphilic character, that enhanced their interaction with biological membranes. The low solubility in aqueous media, a limiting factor for use as photosensitizers, was overcome by encapsulating them in polymeric micro-and nanocapsules using the coacervation method. Two formulations, one based on hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC) and another in the marine atelocollagen/xanthan gum (MAC) mixture were prepared and their photodynamic efficiencies and cytotoxicity against HeLa cells determined. The MAC formulations were shown to be non-toxic, while the HEC presented a small but significant cytotoxicity in the dark. On the other hand, all formulations become toxic when irradiated with 650 nm laser or white light from a mercury lamp source. The most actives, among all formulations, were those prepared using the methylated free-base porphyrin derivatives and MAC, probably due to the higher delivery efficiency of the photosensitizers in relation to the formulations prepared with HEC, associated with their higher quantum yields of photoinduced formation of singlet oxygen of those species as compared with the other compounds. In addition, the encapsulation influenced the interaction and cytolocalization of the photosensitizers, and consequently the rate and mechanism of cell death. The MAC nanocapsules were shown to penetrate the cell membrane by confocal fluorescence microscopy, reaching the cytoplasm where gradually released the photoactive compound. However, the porphyrin derivatives preferentially accumulated in the cell membrane when in DMSO solution. Consequently, the irradiation compromised the membrane integrity leading to necrosis, an undesirable process since cause tissue inflammation. In contrast, the treatment with encapsulated photosensitizer formulations promoted a much lower level of photoinduced damage and apoptosis, a more desirable death mechanism characterized by a complete and rapid regeneration of tissues and absence of inflammatory processes.

Os hidrocarbonetos policíclicos aromáticos são tóxicos e/ou genotóxicos para diversos organismos marinhos e a toxicidade de muitos deles aumenta consideravelmente quando expostos à radiação ultravioleta artificial ou natural. O presente estudo visou avaliar a fototoxicidade do antraceno sobre a mortalidade e o dano ao DNA, segundo o ensaio cometa, de juvenis de pampos da espécie Trachinotus carolinus. Os peixes foram previamente expostos ao antraceno por 24 horas no escuro nas concentrações de 8, 16 e 32µg/L. e então transferidos para a água limpa e expostos à luz de lâmpadas fluorescentes ou à radiação ultravioleta B artificial (RUVB-35µW/cm2). Grupos controle (água e solvente) foram submetidos às mesmas condições experimentais. As exposições na ausência da radiação ultravioleta foram realizadas por períodos cumulativos de 10, 20 e 30h (5h/dia). Para as exposições à RUVB foram utilizados períodos desde 2 até 10h. Na ausência de radiação ultravioleta o antraceno não revelou ser tóxico, mas sua genotoxicidade, medida como danos ao DNA, apresenta resposta dose-dependente. A RUVB é letal para pampos. A exposição ao antraceno seguida de 2h de incidência de RUVB acelera a morte dos peixes em relação à mortalidade dos animais não contaminados. Este resultado revelou a fototoxicidade do antraceno para a espécie. O ensaio cometa pode ser considerado uma ferramenta sensível e útil para avaliar o efeito genotóxico de HPAs em peixes marinhos costeiros. / Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are toxic and/or genotoxic to a variety of marine organisms and under solar or artificial ultraviolet radiation acute toxicity of many of them can be substantially enhanced. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect of the phototoxicity of anthracene on the mortality and damage to the DNA, assessed by the comet assay, of juveniles of Florida pompanos, Trachinotus carolinus. The fish were pre-contaminated in the dark by three concentrations of 8, 16 and 32 µg/L of anthracene for 24 hours then transferred to clean seawater to be exposed to fluorescent light or to artificial ultraviolet B radiation (UVB - 35µW/cm2). Control groups (water and ethanol) were carried out in the same experimental conditions. The exposures to fluorescent light were carried out in cumulative periods of 10, 20 and 30 hours (5h/day). The exposures to UVB were conducted during periods of 2 to 10 hours. In the absence of ultraviolet radiation, the anthracene did not prove to be toxic, but its genotoxicity, evaluated as damage caused to the DNA, proved to be dose dependent. The UVB is lethal to Florida pompanos. The exposure of fish to the anthracene following UVB exposure for 2 hours resulted in earlier and higher mortality when compared to uncontaminated fish. These results indicated that anthracene is phototoxic to the pompanos. The comet assay can be considered a sensitive tool to evaluate the genotoxic effect of PAHs in coastal marine fish.

Decabromodiphenylether (deca-BDE) and triclosan (2,4,4'-trichloro-2'-hydroxydiphenylether) are used in consumer products as flame retardant and bactericide, respectively. Dermal contact is a major human exposure pathway. Deca-BDE and triclosan are known to be photolytically degraded to compounds like lower-BDEs and dioxins. My hypothesis is that photolysis of deca-BDE and triclosan generates free radicals and degradation products which cause toxic effects including cytotoxicity, growth inhibition, oxidative stress and genotoxicity in skin. To test this hypothesis radical formation and photolytic products of deca-BDE and toxic effects of deca-BDE and triclosan alone/with UV-exposure were determined using immortal human keratinocytes (HaCaT) and primary human skin fibroblasts (HSF). My electron paramagnetic resonance and GC-MS studies indicate that deca-BDE is photoreactive and UV irradiation of deca-BDE in organic solvents generates free radicals and lower-BDEs. The free radical formation is wavelength-dependent and positively related to the irradiation time and deca-BDE concentration. In structure-activity relationship studies with deca-BDE, octa-BDE, PBB 209, PCB 209 and diphenyl ether, the presence of halogen atoms (Br > Cl), and/or an ether bond enhance free radical formation. Debromination and hydrogen abstraction from the solvents are the mechanism of radical formation with deca-BDE, which raises concerns about possible toxic effects in UV-exposed skin. In cell culture experiments high levels of triclosan plus UV irradiation and repetitive deca-BDE and UV exposures caused synergistic cytotoxicity in HaCaT. However, neither triclosan nor deca-BDE can be regarded as a phototoxicant following the OECD test and evaluation guidelines. In HSF, no synergistic cytotoxicity was observed, although HSF were more sensitive to deca-BDE and triclosan alone than HaCaT. Contrary to expectations, the photodegradation products of triclosan were less toxic than triclosan itself to HaCaT. However, UV irradiation of triclosan-exposed cells produced a dose dependent increase in intracellular oxidative stress (dichlorofluorescein formation). Comet experiments did not show consistent results of genotoxicity in HaCaT. Overall, deca-BDE and triclosan had no or weak phototoxic potential in cells with the experimental conditions employed. To my knowledge, my research is the first prove of free radical formation during UV irradiation of deca-BDE and the first investigation of phototoxicity of deca-BDE and triclosan in human skin cells.

O aumento do conhecimento em relação aos danos provocados pela radiação solar, tanto na faixa do UVB quanto na faixa do UVA, o avanço nas tecnologias relacionadas ao produto e às formas de avaliação bem como a disponibilização de novas moléculas no mercado levaram ao aumento da qualidade da proteção proporcionada pelos fotoprotetores. Entretanto, ainda há preocupações em relação à segurança de alguns filtros solares devido a sua fotoinstabilidade e penetração cutânea. Dessa forma, torna-se necessário o desenvolvimento de novos filtros solares mais efetivos e seguros, que apresentem relevância científica e potencial de inovação. Assim, a presente pesquisa teve como objetivo desenvolver novos análogos ao filtro solar benzofenona-3 e determinar o seu potencial fotoprotetor por meio da avaliação da absorção UV e avaliação da fotoestabilidade, fototoxicidade e atividade antioxidante. Para tal, inicialmente seis análogos ao filtro solar químico benzofenona-3 foram sintetizados visando aumentar o tamanho da molécula e aumentar a sua absorção no UVA longo (340-400nm). Foram avaliados os espectros de absorção no UV e a fotodegradação dessas substâncias. A fototoxicidade das substâncias selecionadas foi avaliada por meio do uso de cultura de fibroblastos 3T3, para a determinação da viabilidade celular na presença e ausência da radiação. A atividade antioxidante das substâncias foi avaliada por meio da quimioluminescência gerada pela reação HRP-H2O2-luminol. Os resultados permitiram demonstrar a importância da relação entre a estrutura molecular dos compostos e sua absorção no UV. As moléculas benzofenona-3 fenil amino (B5) e o carbazol da benzofenona-3 fenil amino (B6) apresentaram maior absorção no UVA, longo e curto, e no UVB, quando comparadas com a molécula de partida (benzofenona-3). Apenas as substâncias que apresentavam ponte de hidrogênio intramolecular (B5 e B6) foram consideradas fotoestáveis. Somente a molécula B5 não apresentou potencial para fototoxicidade aguda. Além disso, essa molécula apresentou atividade antioxidante, o que sugere o seu grande potencial para utilização com filtro solar. / The increase of our knowledge of not only UVB but also UVA-induced damages, the advances on product and testing technologies as well as new sunscreen molecules leaded to and enhancement of quality of UV protection provided by topical sunscreens. However there are some safety concerns involving some UV-filters due to their photoinstability and skin penetration. Therefore it is necessary to develop new safer and more effective UV-filters, which also presents scientific relevance and innovation potential. Thus, the aim of the present research was to develop new analogues based on benzophenone-3, and to evaluate their photoprotective potential through their photostability, phototoxicity and antioxidant activity. For this purpose, firstly six new synthetic analogues based on benzophenone-3 were prepared in order to promote molecular weight enhancement as well as improve long-wave UVA absorption (340-400 nm). The UV absorption spectra and photodegradation of these compounds were also analyzed. Phototoxicity of selected compounds was evaluated by using 3T3 monolayer fibroblast culture to determine cell viability in the presence and absence of UVA radiation. The antioxidant activity was evaluated by HRP-H2O2-luminol induced chemiluminescence. The results showed that relationship between the molecular structure and UV absorption. Me molecules phenylamine benzophenone-3 (B5) and phenylamine benzophenone-3 carbazol (B6) showed higher short and long-wave UVA and UVB absorption, when compared to benzophenone-3. Only B5 and B6, which presented intermolecular hydrogen bond, were considered photostable. B5 did not present any acute phototoxicity potential; in addition it has antioxidant activity, which suggests its high UVfilter potential.

Anthracene was attached to light activated, ruthenium-based DNA disruptors to probe their distribution in cancer cells. The objective of this research is to understand the photophysical properties (Chapter 2), photoreactivity toward DNA and proteins (Chapter 3), and localization within cancer cells (Chapter 4) of ruthenium complexes that demonstrate promise as photodynamic therapy (PDT) agents. [(AnthbpyMe)(bpy)Ru(dpp)]2+ (1) and [(AnthbpyMe)2Ru(dpp)]2+ (2) absorb visible light with metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) transitions at 459 nm (16,000 M-1 cm-1 ) and 461 nm (21,000 M-1 cm-1 ), respectively. These species exhibit 3 MLCT emissions at λem = 661 nm and λem = 663 nm for 1 and 2, respectively, while the anthracene show emissions at 450 – 560 nm. The anthracene unit(s) quench the 3 MLCT to give quantum yields (lifetime) of Φem = 0.0059 [398(1) ns] and Φem = 0.0011 [414(1) ns] for 1 and 2, respectively. Voltammetry shows an irreversible anthracene oxidation at 1.23 – 1.28 V, RuIII/II oxidation at 1.53 – 1.55 V, and quasi-reversible reduction couples attributed to dpp0/-1 at 0.98 V. DNA gel shift assays demonstrate that complexes 1 and 2 modify DNA in the presence and absence of 3 O2 upon light activation to convert supercoiled DNA to a mixture of open circular (OC) DNA and a species that exhibit sa distinctly different migration rate than either OC and linear DNA. Binding constants, Kb, for complexes 1 and 2, toward DNA are 3.50 × 105 (3.50 × 104 ) and 4.50 × 103 (4.50 × 102 ) respectively. SDS-PAGE assays show that the complexes 1 and 2 modify bovine serum albumin (BSA) through an 3 O2-dependent mechanism upon light iii activation. The localization and PDT potency of the anthracene-Ru-dpp complexes are tested against F98 cells, which are rat glioma cells that simulate the infiltrative patterns of growth in cancer. Confocal microscopy demonstrates that complexes 1 and 2 internalize and localize primarily along the cell membrane and associate with dot-like vesicles within the cytoplasm. Complexes 1 and 2 show IC50 values of 107 µM and 85 µM, respectively, after 15 min of drug exposure and 1 h of PDT-treatment (λPDT = 455 nm). / Ph. D.