<p>The newfound capability of creating moisture sensitive interference multilayered thin films (MLTFs) comprising microfibrillated cellulose and polymers has not previously been possible to implement on surfaces other than silicon wafer strips. Being able to incorporate interference MLTFs on fibre-based materials would introduce the possibility for new applications within authentication, sensing and customer attraction for the paper and packaging industry. By using trichloro (1H, 1H, 2H, 2H-perfluorooctyl) silane we were able to hydrophobically modify silicon substrates, enabling interference MLTF lift-off and thus the creation of free-standing MLTFs of approximately 400 nm thickness. Contact dried MLTFs approximately 250 nm thick, were successfully transferred to copy- and filter paper as well as to cellulose-based dialysis membranes. We can also report on the successful synthesis of interference MLTFs directly on a fibre composite material and on aluminium. Initial tests of a method to quantify the pull-off conditions of the MLTFs from the fluorinated surfaces using the Micro Adhesion Measurement Apparatus showed promising results.</p>

<p>The aim of this thesis is to investigate how material surfaces are affected by various surface treatments and how this relates to the adhesion of the coating. The materials that were studied were WC-Co and Cermets and the surface treatments used were polishing, grinding with coarser and finer abrasive grains, and finally wet blasting and dry blasting. Focus was on deformations and residual stresses in the surface, surface roughness and cracks. The test methods used for examining the samples included surface roughness measurements, residual stress measurements, adhesion tests using Rockwell indentation and SEM images of the surface and the cross section.<br /><br />The results concluded that polishing gives very good adhesion. Additionally, the adhesion for ground surfaces was good for WC-Co but very poor for Cermets. Furthermore, it was observed that finer abrasive grains did not result in better adhesion. In fact, the coarser grains gave slightly better results. Finally, it was concluded that wet blasting has a clear advantage over dry blasting and results in much better adhesion, especially for the Cermets. The results for the WC-Co were a bit inconsistent and so further research is required.</p>

Materials based on fullerenes and carbon nanotubes are very much different from most “traditional” materials, primarily because they are built from nanosized molecules with highly symmetry-dependent properties. Being the subject of a very active research field over the last twenty years, carbon nanostructures proved to be indeed extraordinary. Their splendid mechanical properties attract a great interest among material scientists. Their wide range of electrical properties, from ballistic conductors to insulators, makes them ideal candidates for future, better electronics. The possibilities seem to be nearly unlimited, with proposed applications ranging from quantum computing to medicine. However, in order to make it all happen one day, we first need to explore and understand the physics and chemistry of carbon nanomaterials. This work focuses on production and characterization of materials and structures in which fullerenes and/or carbon nanotubes are the main ingredients, and which can be produced or modified under high-pressure – high-temperature (hp-hT) conditions. Raman and photoluminescence spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction and scanning probe microscopy were employed for characterization of the samples. The research presented in this thesis is spread over a rather wide range of carbon nanomaterials. To highlight some of the main results – the first hp-hT polymerization of C60 nanorods and the C60-cubane compound is reported. The polymerization mechanism in the latter case was identified to be radically different from that in pure C60. The pressure-temperature diagram of C60-cubane is presented. A comparative study of C60 and C70 peapods under extreme p-T conditions reveals how the confinement affects the fullerenes’ ability for polymerization. Finally, in situ resistance measurements on Rb4C60 under high pressure show that the semiconducting character of this material persists at least up to 2 GPa, contradicting earlier reports on the existence of an insulator-to-metal transition and providing an insight into conduction mechanisms in this anomalous intercalated compound.

During the last decade, AlGaN High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs) have been intensively studied because their fundamental electrical properties make them attractive for highpower microwave device applications. Despite much progress, AlGaN HEMTs are far from fully understood and judged by the number of published papers the understanding of advanced structures is even poorer. This work is an exploration of the electrical and structural properties of advanced HEMT structure containing AlN exclusionlayer and double heterojunctions. These small modifications had great impact on the electrical properties. In this work, AlGaN HEMT structures grown on SiC substrates by a hot-wall MOCVD have been characterized for their properties using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, capacitance/voltage, eddy-current resistivity, and by homebuilt epi-thickness mapping equipment. A high electron mobility of 1700 [cm2/Vs] was achieved in an AlN exclusion-layer HEMT. A similar electron mobility of 1650 [cm2/Vs] was achieved in a combination of a double heterojunction and exclusion-layer structure. The samples had approximately the same electron mobility but with a great difference: the exclusion-layer version gave a sheet carrier density of 1.58*1013 [electrons/cm2] while the combination of double heterojunction and exclusion-layer gave 1.07*1013 [electrons/cm2]. A second 2DEG was observed in most structures, but not all, but was not stable with time. The structures we grew during this work were also simulated using a one-dimensional Poisson-Schrödinger solver and the simulated electron densities were in fairly good agreement with the experimentally obtained. III-nitride materials, the CVD concept, and the onedimensional solver are shortly explained.

The newfound capability of creating moisture sensitive interference multilayered thin films (MLTFs) comprising microfibrillated cellulose and polymers has not previously been possible to implement on surfaces other than silicon wafer strips. Being able to incorporate interference MLTFs on fibre-based materials would introduce the possibility for new applications within authentication, sensing and customer attraction for the paper and packaging industry. By using trichloro (1H, 1H, 2H, 2H-perfluorooctyl) silane we were able to hydrophobically modify silicon substrates, enabling interference MLTF lift-off and thus the creation of free-standing MLTFs of approximately 400 nm thickness. Contact dried MLTFs approximately 250 nm thick, were successfully transferred to copy- and filter paper as well as to cellulose-based dialysis membranes. We can also report on the successful synthesis of interference MLTFs directly on a fibre composite material and on aluminium. Initial tests of a method to quantify the pull-off conditions of the MLTFs from the fluorinated surfaces using the Micro Adhesion Measurement Apparatus showed promising results.

The aim of this thesis is to investigate how material surfaces are affected by various surface treatments and how this relates to the adhesion of the coating. The materials that were studied were WC-Co and Cermets and the surface treatments used were polishing, grinding with coarser and finer abrasive grains, and finally wet blasting and dry blasting. Focus was on deformations and residual stresses in the surface, surface roughness and cracks. The test methods used for examining the samples included surface roughness measurements, residual stress measurements, adhesion tests using Rockwell indentation and SEM images of the surface and the cross section.<br /><br />The results concluded that polishing gives very good adhesion. Additionally, the adhesion for ground surfaces was good for WC-Co but very poor for Cermets. Furthermore, it was observed that finer abrasive grains did not result in better adhesion. In fact, the coarser grains gave slightly better results. Finally, it was concluded that wet blasting has a clear advantage over dry blasting and results in much better adhesion, especially for the Cermets. The results for the WC-Co were a bit inconsistent and so further research is required.

<p>Oligo(phenyleneethynylene) (OPE) molecules are a class of fully conjugated aromatic molecules, that attract attention for their application as “molecular wires” in molecular electronic devices. In this thesis work, self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) formed from a variety of OPE derivatives have been studied. The chemical properties, structure, and packing density of the SAMs have been characterized utilizing techniques such as high-resolution X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (HRXPS), near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS), Infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS), contact angle measurements, and atomic force microscopy (AFM).</p><p>In a first study, three OPE-derivatives, with benzene, naphthalene and anthracene, respectively, inserted into the backbone, and an acetyl-protected thiophenol binding group were found to form SAMs on Au(111) substrates with lower molecular surface densities and larger molecular inclination as the lateral π-system increases.</p><p>In a second study, porphyrin was introduced as the end group to a wire-like molecule such as OPE. The purpose was to obtain well-organized and functionalized surfaces with optical and redox properties. Three porphyrin-functionalized OPEs had different binding groups, an acetyl-protected thiophenol, a benzylic thiol, and a trimethylsilylethynylene group, and were found to form SAMs on gold surfaces with difference in structure and degree of order. The molecules with the acetyl-protected thiophenol binding group were found to form a high quality SAM compared to the other two. This SAM exhibits a well-ordered and densely packed layer.</p><p>This study gives rise to a better understanding of SAM formation of OPE derivatives, and will form a base for further investigations of charge transport properties of these molecular films, which is of interest for applications in molecular electronic devices.</p>

The work presented in this thesis deals with experimental and theoretical studies related to alumina thin films. Alumina, Al2O3, is a polymorphic material utilized in a variety of applications, e.g., in the form of thin films. However, controlling thin film growth of this material, in particular at low substrate temperatures, is not straightforward. The aim of this work is to increase the understanding of the basic mechanisms governing alumina growth and to investigate novel ways of synthesizing alumina coatings. The thesis can be divided into two main parts, where the first part deals with fundamental studies of mechanisms affecting alumina growth and the second part with more application-oriented studies of high power impulse magnetron sputter (HiPIMS) deposition of the material. In the first part, it was shown that the thermodynamically stable α phase, which normally is synthesized at substrate temperatures of around 1000 °C, can be grown using reactive sputtering at a substrate temperature of merely 500 °C by controlling the nucleation surface. This was done by predepositing a Cr2O3 nucleation layer. Moreover, it was found that an additional requirement for the formation of the α phase is that the depositions are carried out at low enough total pressure and high enough oxygen partial pressure. Based on these observations, it was concluded that energetic bombardment, plausibly originating from energetic oxygen, is necessary for the formation of α-alumina (in addition to the effect of the chromia nucleation layer). Moreover, the effects of residual water on the growth of crystalline films were investigated by varying the partial pressure of water in the ultra high vacuum (UHV) chamber. Films deposited onto chromia nucleation layers exhibited a columnar structure and consisted of crystalline α-alumina if deposited under UHV conditions. However, as water to a partial pressure of 1*10-5 Torr was introduced, the columnar α-alumina growth was disrupted. Instead, a microstructure consisting of small, equiaxed grains was formed, and the γ-alumina content was found to increase with increasing film thickness. To gain a better understanding of the atomistic processes occurring on the surface, density functional theory based computational studies of adsorption and diffusion of Al, O, AlO, and O2 on different α-alumina (0001) surfaces were also performed. The results give possible reasons for the difficulties in growing the α phase at low temperatures through the identification of several metastable adsorption sites and also show how adsorbed hydrogen might inhibit further growth of α-alumina crystallites. In addition, it was shown that the Al surface diffusion activation energies are unexpectedly low, suggesting that limited surface diffusivity is not the main obstacle for low-temperature α-alumina growth. Instead, it is suggested to be more important to find ways of reducing the amount of impurities, especially hydrogen, in the process and to facilitate α-alumina nucleation when designing new processes for low-temperature deposition of α-alumina. In the second part of the thesis, reactive HiPIMS deposition of alumina was studied. In HiPIMS, a high-density plasma is created by applying very high power to the sputtering magnetron at a low duty cycle. It was found, both from experiments and modeling, that the use of HiPIMS drastically influences the characteristics of the reactive sputtering process, causing reduced target poisoning and thereby reduced or eliminated hysteresis effects and relatively high deposition rates of stoichiometric alumina films. This is not only of importance for alumina growth, but for reactive sputter deposition in general, where hysteresis effects and loss of deposition rate pose a substantial problem. Moreover, it was found that the energetic and ionized deposition flux in the HiPIMS discharge can be used to lower the deposition temperature of α-alumina. Coatings predominantly consisting of the α phase were grown at temperatures as low as 650 °C directly onto cemented carbide substrates without the use of nucleation layers. Such coatings were also deposited onto cutting inserts and were tested in a steel turning application. The coatings were found to increase the crater wear resistance compared to a benchmark TiAlN coating, and the process consequently shows great potential for further development towards industrial applications.

Utvecklingen inom materialforskningen går mot att framställa avancerade material vilka är skräddarsydda för olika tillämpningar. Detta har medfört att det blir allt mer populärt att belägga ytor med ett eller flera tunna lager med syfte att förbättra materialegenskaperna. Användningsområden för ytbeläggningar går att hitta inom allt från vardagliga produkter såsom teflonbeläggningar av stekpannor, förgyllning av smycken till avancerad halvledarteknik för att åstadkomma energieffektiva lysdioder. Det enskilt största tillämpningsområdet för tunna filmer är dock som skyddande skikt för verktyg inom skärande bearbetning. Utvecklingen går stadigt mot högre skärhastigheter och därmed ökade temperaturer, idagsläget kan området där verktyget och arbetsmaterialet är i kontakt nå temperaturer på mellan 800-1000 °C utan att förlora nämnvärt i styrka. Detta har gjorts möjligt genom att belägga skären med någon eller några μm (tusendels mm) av lämpligt keramiskt material i avseende att öka motståndskraften för nötning vid bearbetning vid höga temperaturer. I den här avhandlingen har tunna filmer studerats med det övergripande målet att förbättra egenskaper hos verktyg för skärande metallbearbetning genom att öka motståndskraften hos materialen mot mekanisk och kemisk nötning vid höga temperaturer. Materialsystemet som undersökts är Ti-Si-N, där tunna filmer av både legeringar och tvåfassystem har syntetiserats och egenskapskarakteriserats. Legeringarna är belagda med varierande Si-halt från 0 till 10 atomprocent och avsedda för att studera strukturella, termiska och mekaniska egenskaper. De framställdes med en teknik som kallas arcförångning, där man i ett vakuumsystem frigör högenergetiskt material i det här fallet av Ti och Si som förångas från en solid yta kallad target. Atomerna joniseras genom kollisioner med elektroner och reagerar på sin väg mot substratet med kvävgas. Väl framme vid substratet, kondenserar jonerna och bilder den tunna filmen. Filmerna består av två strukturtyper, den första är en fast lösning där Si atomer upp till 5 at.% ersätter Ti atomer i TiN. I det andra fallet så segregerar Si till korngränserna. Värmebehandlingsexperiment visar att Si bildar SiNx som kapslar in TiN-korn vid temperaturer upp till 1000 °C. Hårdhetstester visar att filmerna bibehåller sin hårdhet upp till 1000 °C tack vare fasomvandlingen. Även vid 1100 °C är hårdheten hög. Dessa skikt besitter alltså egenskaper som gör dem väldigt användbara inom tillämpningar för skärande bearbetning. Nanostrukturerade materials egenskaper beror på dess mikrostruktur snarare än på de grundämnen som ingår, detta exemplifieras av TiN-SiNx-nanokompositer bestående av nanokristallina TiN-korn inbäddade i några få atomlager SiNx, där materialegenskaperna helt och hållet beror på kornstorleken på TiN-kornen och tjockleken på SiNx-lagren. Ökas tjockleken på SiNx minskar hårdheten. Dessa filmer har mycket goda mekaniska egenskaper och är ett av de hårdaste materialen som finns. Nyckeln till den höga hårdheten hos skikten ligger i att bilda starka bindningar mellan TiN och SiNx. Hur dessa ser ut vet man dock inte eftersom strukturen på SiNx gränsytan inte är känd. Anledningen är att den är svår att avbilda på grund av dess krökta form och begränsade volym. I denna avhandling har TiN/SiNx multilager belagts, dvs. en lagrad struktur TiN alternerad med SiNx. Dessa filmer framställdes med sputtring, en teknik som liknar arcförångning men där man istället accelerera positivt laddade joner mot Ti och Si targets med en hög negativ potential som frigör Ti och Si. I multilagren varierades SiNx-lagrets tjocklek mellan endast några få atomlager för att göra en förenklad modell av gränsytan hos nanokompositen och med atomupplöst transmissionselektronmikroskopi samt hårdhetsmätningar konstateras sedan att de hårdaste filmerna var de där kristallin SiNx stabiliseras mellan TiNkorn. Vidare studerar jag SiNx/TiN ytor med sveptunnelmikroskopi och täthetsfunktionalteori (en kvantmekanisk simuleringsmetod). Mina resultat visar SiNx och bindningarna till TiN är mycket mer komplicerade än vad man tidigare trott, då de kan vara kristallina och anta komplexa rekonstruktioner. Detta bidrar till den starka bindningen mellan TiN och SiNx vilket i sin tur förklarar varför materialen blir så hårda. / Ti-Si-N and Ti-Al-Si-N thin solid films have been studied by analytical electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning tunneling microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, elastic recoil detection analysis, nanoindentation, and ab initio calculations. I find that arc evaporated (Ti1-xSix)Ny films can be grown as cubic solid solutions up to x = 0.09 with a dense columnar microstructure. Films with higher Si content up to x = 0.20 assumes an extremely defect-rich, feather-like structure consisting of cubic TiN:Si nanocrystallite bundles with low-angle grain boundaries caused by thermodynamically driven Si segregation. Correspondingly, the N content in the films increases close to linear with the Si content from y = 1.00 (x = 0) to y = 1.13 (x = 0.20). Annealing of the films at 1000 °C yields a metastable crystalline SiNz (1.0 ≤ z ≤ 1.33) tissue phase in 0.04 ≤ x ≤ 0.20 films which is (semi)-coherent to TiN. These films are compositionally stable and exhibit retained hardness between 31-42 GPa up to 1000 °C. At 1100-1200 °C, the tissue phase amorphizes and all SiNz diffuse out of the films, followed by recrystallization of the cubic phase. Hard turning testing was performed on (Ti0.83Si0.17)N1.09. Analysis of the tool-chip interface prepared by focused ion beam revealed shear deformation in the film and an adhering layer consisting of the work-piece material and Si and N from the film. For (Ti0.33Al0.67)1-xSix)N (0 ≤ x ≤ 0.29) films the NaCl structure cubic (Ti,Al)N solid solution phase is predominant at low Si contents, which gradually changes to a dominating hexagonal wurtzite (Al,Ti,Si)N solid solution for 0.04 ≤ x ≤ 0.17. Additional Si results in amorphization. Annealing experiments at 600-1000 °C yields spinodal decomposition of c-(Al,Ti)N into c-AlN and c-TiN, with corresponding age hardening. The h-(Al,Ti,Si)N films exhibit precipitation of c- TiN with smaller volume than the host lattice, which results in tensile cracks formations and age hardening. Films with c-(Ti,Al)N perform best in turning applications, while films with h- (Al,Ti,Si)N form cracks and fail. Finally, I have characterized the nature of metastable crystalline SiNz phases and the interface between TiN(001) and SiNz. Magnetron sputtering was used to deposit TiN/SiNz(001) nanolaminate films with varying SiNz and TiN layer thicknesses. Maximum hardness is obtained when SiNz forms coherent interfaces with TiN. In addition, in situ surface analyses in combination with ab-initio calculations reveal that SiNz sub-monolayers grow epitaxially and form crystalline reconstructions on TiN(001) and TiN(111) surfaces. Phonon calculations predict that stoichiometric c-SiN is dynamically instable when the atoms are arranged in the NaCl and ZnS forms. However, c-Si3N4 can be stabilized with D022 or L12 ordered ZnS-like structures. These results have impact for the design of superhard nanocomposites and multilayer thin films.

Oligo(phenyleneethynylene) (OPE) molecules are a class of fully conjugated aromatic molecules, that attract attention for their application as “molecular wires” in molecular electronic devices. In this thesis work, self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) formed from a variety of OPE derivatives have been studied. The chemical properties, structure, and packing density of the SAMs have been characterized utilizing techniques such as high-resolution X-ray photoemission spectroscopy (HRXPS), near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy (NEXAFS), Infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy (IRRAS), contact angle measurements, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). In a first study, three OPE-derivatives, with benzene, naphthalene and anthracene, respectively, inserted into the backbone, and an acetyl-protected thiophenol binding group were found to form SAMs on Au(111) substrates with lower molecular surface densities and larger molecular inclination as the lateral π-system increases. In a second study, porphyrin was introduced as the end group to a wire-like molecule such as OPE. The purpose was to obtain well-organized and functionalized surfaces with optical and redox properties. Three porphyrin-functionalized OPEs had different binding groups, an acetyl-protected thiophenol, a benzylic thiol, and a trimethylsilylethynylene group, and were found to form SAMs on gold surfaces with difference in structure and degree of order. The molecules with the acetyl-protected thiophenol binding group were found to form a high quality SAM compared to the other two. This SAM exhibits a well-ordered and densely packed layer. This study gives rise to a better understanding of SAM formation of OPE derivatives, and will form a base for further investigations of charge transport properties of these molecular films, which is of interest for applications in molecular electronic devices.