This thesis estimates the impact of non-tariff measures (NTMs) notified by the importing countries on agricultural trade. The non-tariff measures constitute the technical measures notified under the SPS and TBT agreements and the non-technical measures to trade. Two approaches are used; the inventory approach and the econometric approach which makes use of the gravity model. The inventory results suggest that African countries face more restrictions on their exports than what they impose on their imports. Also, Uganda, Senegal and Mali are among the top twenty most affected importers. The empirical results suggest that the impact of the overall group on non-tariff measures is ambiguous but when measures are disaggregated into technical and non-technical measures, the results show that the technical measures promote agricultural trade and that the non-technical measures restrict trade. Also, imports of industrialized nations from fellow industrialized nations are promoted by the technical measures but are restricted by non-technical measures, while those from non-industrialized countries are affected negatively by both technical and non-technical measures. Out of the five regions considered, Africa faces the largest negative impact by both technical and non-technical measures. / Master of Science

This dissertation illuminates how phytosanitary (PS) regulations enable mango exportation from Mexico to the United States. PS regulations are technical and legal measures to prevent plant pests from proliferating or being transported to other places and are important regulatory mechanisms enabling the globalization of agriculture. My case study investigates how PS regulations enable Mexican mango exportation as an aspect of the globalization of agriculture, illustrating the consequences of PS regulations to humans and non-humans. More specifically, three research questions are posed: (1) How does the PS regulation network operate to draw distinctions between pest/non-pest, thereby enabling the export of Mexican mangos to the United States? (2) What values are associated with the PS regulation network, and what are the normative, moral, or ethical implications of the regulations? And, (3) How are the PS regulations in transition in the state of Sinaloa changing economic prospects for mango growers and packers to tap into global mango markets? Theoretically, the analysis draws on a concept called “material politics,” which claims that politics is enacted through not only discursive measures, such as statutes, but also physical embodiment by material beings. Thus, PS regulations are conceptualized as a materially heterogeneous network that establishes boundaries between pest/non-pest, thereby connecting distinct places, such as mango orchards and consumers. The material politics concept also suggests the emergence of socio-material “ordering” effects by regulations, such as values, morals, and norms, as well as unequal economic opportunities. Nine months of ethnographic fieldwork in Mexico, which employed in-depth interviews, (participant) observations, and documentary research, yielded the following findings: (1) PS regulations as a network of governance (re)configured the production of the commodity, “disciplining” humans and non-humans to conform to the global regulatory order; (2) in this network, non-governmental entities played critical roles, fitting squarely with the recent neoliberal political-economic orientation in Mexico; and (3) although the government’s pest eradication program could improve market chances for growers, local political-economic circumstances, including small-scale growers’ dependence on packers for marketing, still left substantial challenges for such economic prospects to materialize.

WTO Agreements have failed to adequately cater for the needs of developing countries. The WTO Agreements, particularly the SPS Agreements has failed to take into account the special needs of developing and least developing countries and clearly their interests have received no representation in the Agreement. Instead of reducing the negative impact of the SPS measures, the Agreement itself has become a barrier to trade. The problems of its implementation inclusive of the expertise, the high costs of conformity, lack of infrastructure and adequate resources have created further restrictions for exporters in international commerce. The failure to adequately deal with the implementation problems of developing countries is evident in the stalemate that culminated at the Doha Ministerial Conference which has extended for over a decade. Perhaps the future of African developments lies in regional agreements, since it is clear that the multilateral trading system has failed. Whereas some scholars are of the view that Article 5.7 of the Agreement should be used as model for the precautionary principle. The principle is highly controversial and does not even have a universal definition; its application might prove to be highly problematic. However the trade-environment debate has already taken center stage in the WTO jurisprudence, suggesting possibly the emergence of an Agreement to that effect. One however can only wonder whether in including the trade-environment debate under the ambit of the WTO when clearly it has failed to deal with issues and concerns’ relating to trade only, might be biting much more than it can chew. / Thesis (LL.M.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Wood products all require treatment to mitigate phytosanitary risk prior to exportation. The most common phytosanitary treatment applied to Pinus radiata logs is Methyl Bromide (MeBr). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 2010 stated that MeBr must not be release into the atmosphere past 2020. This poses a problem for New Zealand log exports. Radiation has been identified as a possible alternative phytosanitary treatment for export wood products. This study aimed to quantify the effective dose of radiation necessary to sterilise two forest pest species; Arhopalus ferus and Hylurgus ligniperda. These species are representative of two different types of forestry pests; bark beetles (H. ligniperda) and wood borers (A. ferus). All applicable life stages for both species were tested. Arhopalus ferus adults were the most susceptible life stage identified with an LD99 of 30.2Gy ± 13.5 Gy (95% confidence interval). Arhopalus ferus eggs were less susceptible with a LD99 of 750Gy ± 776Gy observed; however there is low confidence in this result due to a methodological issue in one treatment replicate. Hylurgus ligniperda eggs were observed to be less susceptible than A. ferus eggs with a LD99 of 289Gy ± 92Gy. Results for the other life stages were inconclusive due to poor control survival, however the information gained was used to develop improved methods for further experimentation, which is on-going and showing positive results so far. The results of this experiment have indicated that radiation can be an effective method of sterilising forestry pests. To date radiation has not been used as phytosanitary risk mitigation for wood exports; however it is widely used for risk mitigation in agricultural products. Currently there remains a large amount of unknown information regarding, the effectiveness for irradiation of logs, the effective dose require for sterilisation of the most tolerant forestry pest and public acceptability of irradiation as a phytosanitary treatment. These knowledge gaps and an economic assessment must be completed before irradiation can be used as a phytosanitary risk mitigation technique for forestry products.

Submitted by JOSIVAN ALVES DA SILVA null (alvesjosivan2@gmail.com) on 2017-10-03T16:54:35Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertacao_Josivan_Alves_da_Silva.pdf: 1897214 bytes, checksum: 9d0727b421bab72e7f0e8bb11feefbf2 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Monique Sasaki (sayumi_sasaki@hotmail.com) on 2017-10-03T17:11:25Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_ja_me_jabo.pdf: 1897214 bytes, checksum: 9d0727b421bab72e7f0e8bb11feefbf2 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-10-03T17:11:25Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_ja_me_jabo.pdf: 1897214 bytes, checksum: 9d0727b421bab72e7f0e8bb11feefbf2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-09-05 / A automação da produção agrícola proporciona mudanças na estrutura dos custos das organizações rurais, proporcionando em geral significativa redução dos custos com mão de obra e um maior controle do processo de gestão das atividades agrícolas. Por outro lado, a automação requer investimentos contínuos em novas tecnologias e uma capacidade absortiva organizacional destas novas tecnologias. Esses fatores aliados a busca pelo aumento de produtividade, competitividade e rentabilidade faz com que as empresas agrícolas potencializem seu sistema produtivo como um todo, por meio da otimização das operações que o envolve, objetivando o aumento da capacidade operacional e redução nos custos de produção. É nesse contexto que se posiciona esse trabalho, que visa analisar a viabilidade econômica da implantação de um sistema de monitoramento das operações agrícolas mecanizadas na citricultura mediante o uso de um “Global Positioning System” (GPS). Para tanto, foi feito um estudo de caso único. O caso foi estudado ao longo de toda a safra 2016/2017 em que o sistema foi implantado em 8 tratores e dois caminhões que atuaram em uma área de 2.236 ha. A partir da metodologia do Fluxo de Caixa Descontado (FCD) associado a simulação de Monte Carlo avaliou-se a viabilidade econômica do investimento. O uso do sistema de monitoramento por GPS permitiu a gestão em tempo real o controle de todas as atividades realizadas pelos equipamentos, sendo capaz, não somente, de determinar as melhores atividades a serem realizadas como também em intervir ao longo das atividades em mudanças. Os resultados financeiros evidenciaram valores de até 23,67% menores para as operações monitoradas, sendo a eficiência mais contundente junto a pulverização de Psilídeo. A análise econômica reportou para a viabilidade do investimento com 99,5% de confiança, cujo ganho em Valor Presente Líquido (VPL) por máquina representa 15% do valor de aquisição da mesma. A análise econômica reportou para a viabilidade do investimento com 99,5% de confiança, cujo ganho em Valor Presente Líquido (VPL) por máquina representa 15% do valor de aquisição da mesma. Os resultados deste estudo são pioneiros para as operações mecanizadas na citricultura e denotam a importância em sistema de automação que permitam o melhor gerenciamento das atividades de manejo na produção de laranjas. / The automation of agricultural production provides changes in the structure of the costs of rural organizations, generally providing significant reduction of labor costs and greater control of the process of management of agricultural activities. On the other hand, automation requires continuous investments in new technologies and an absorptive organizational capacity of these new technologies. These factors, allied to the search for increased productivity, competitiveness and profitability, mean that agricultural companies can enhance their production system as a whole, by optimizing their operations, aiming at increasing operational capacity and reducing production costs. It is in this context that this work is positioned, which aims to analyze the economic viability of the implementation of a monitoring system of mechanized agricultural operations in the citriculture through the use of a Global Positioning System (GPS). For that, a single case study was done. The case was studied throughout the 2016/2017 harvest in which the system was implanted in 8 tractors and two trucks that operated in an area of 2,236 ha. Based on the Discounted Cash Flow (CDF) methodology associated with Monte Carlo simulation, the economic viability of the investment was evaluated. The use of the GPS monitoring system allowed the real time management of all the activities carried out by the equipment, being able not only to determine the best activities to be performed but also to intervene during the activities in the changes. The financial results showed values of up to 23.67% lower for the monitored operations, being the most compelling efficiency with Psilídeo spraying. The economic analysis reported on the viability of the investment with 99.5% confidence, whose gain in Net Present Value (NPV) per machine represents 15% of the acquisition value of the same. The economic analysis reported on the viability of the investment with 99.5% confidence, whose gain in Net Present Value (NPV) per machine represents 15% of the acquisition value of the same. The results of this study are pioneers for the mechanized operations in the citriculture and denote the importance in automation system that allow the best management of the management activities in the production of oranges.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:30:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2011-07-22Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T21:01:00Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 gimenes_mj_dr_botfca.pdf: 1534525 bytes, checksum: 3d0bd013733157c4e669fa55cb06798f (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A alta demanda por produtos fitossanitários nos sistemas de produção, aliada ao possível uso inadequado, torna a tecnologia de aplicação uma das principais alternativas para otimizar a eficiência desses produtos em pulverizações agrícolas. Nesse contexto, o trabalho objetivou avaliar o desempenho da assistência de ar junto à barra, diferentes tipos de pontas, bem como volumes de calda sobre os depósitos da pulverização, controle da lagarta-docartucho e desempenho da cultura do milho conduzido em sistema adensado de semeadura. Dois experimentos foram conduzidos na área experimental da Fazenda de Ensino, Pesquisa e Produção (FEPP) da Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas, UNESP, Câmpus de Botucatu/SP. Um experimento foi instalado durante o ano agrícola de 2008/2009, no delineamento de blocos casualizados em esquema fatorial (2x2+1), com quatro repetições. Foram avaliadas duas pontas de pulverização (ponta de jato plano e ponta de jato cônico vazio) combinadas com dois níveis de assistência de ar junto à barra de pulverização (com e sem assistência de ar), além de um tratamento testemunha. O outro experimento foi realizado no ano agrícola de 2009/2010, na mesma área experimental e sob o mesmo delineamento que o experimento anterior. Utilizou-se, neste caso, duas pontas de pulverização de jato plano (com e sem indução de ar) combinadas a dois volumes de pulverização (100 e 200 L ha-1), além de um tratamento testemunha. Nas pulverizações de ambos os experimentos, foi utilizado o inseticida Spinosad na dosagem de 48 g i. a. ha-1. A assistência de ar junto à barra de pulverização incrementou os depósitos da pulverização no estádio de desenvolvimento V4 da cultura do milho. Ainda, o uso dessa tecnologia proporcionou maiores eficiências de controle da lagartado- cartucho, chegando ao nível de 100% com 15 dias após a aplicação, no estádio... / The high pesticides demand in production systems, coupled with the possible inappropriate use, becomes the application technology one of the main alternatives to optimize the products efficiency in agricultural spraying. In this context, the study aimed to evaluate the performance of air assistance in spray boom, different kinds of nozzles, as well as spray volume on spray deposits, fall armyworm control and crop corn performance in narrow row sowing system. Two experiments were carried out at experimental area of Teaching, Research and Production Farm (TRPF) from Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, UNESP, Campus of Botucatu/SP, Brazil. One experiment was conducted during the 2008/2009 agricultural season, in randomized blocks with factorial scheme (2x2 +1), with four replications. They were tested two spray nozzles (flat fan nozzle and hollow cone nozzle) combined with two air assistance levels in the spray boom (with and without air assistance) and a control treatment. The other experiment was carried out in the 2009/2010 agricultural season, in the same experimental area, using the experimental design as the previous experiment. In this case, they were tested two flat fan nozzles (with and without air induction), combined with two spray volumes (100 and 200 L ha-1), plus a control treatment. In both experiments spraying, Spinosad insecticide was sprayed with amount of 48 g a. i. ha-1. The air assistance in the spray boom increased the spray deposits in V4 growth stage of corn plants. Moreover, the application of this technology showed higher efficiency on fall armyworm control, reaching the level of 100% at 15 days after spraying, in the V10 growth stage of corn plants. The hollow cone nozzle increased the spray deposits level on corn plants when compared with flat fan nozzles, in the growth stage V4. However, the flat fan nozzle, combined with air assistance technology was more effective... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Submitted by Franciele Moreira (francielemoreyra@gmail.com) on 2017-12-26T15:06:58Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Fabrícia Costa Adriano - 2017.pdf: 1669039 bytes, checksum: c5ca12051627865e18eae1502d75d2b9 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luciana Ferreira (lucgeral@gmail.com) on 2017-12-27T10:43:40Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Fabrícia Costa Adriano - 2017.pdf: 1669039 bytes, checksum: c5ca12051627865e18eae1502d75d2b9 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-12-27T10:43:40Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação - Fabrícia Costa Adriano - 2017.pdf: 1669039 bytes, checksum: c5ca12051627865e18eae1502d75d2b9 (MD5) license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-12-06 / The Crotalaria juncea, C. spectabilis e C. ochroleuca are natural fertilizers that can control the population of nematodes in soil, it being used I consortium or succession by farmers of Brazilian Midwest. As there are no registered products for this crop and the information about the selectivity in these species are meager. Weed control has become an obstacle for the farmers. Thereby, the objective of this study was to investigate which herbicides show selectivity for C. juncea, C. spectabilis and C. ochroleuca. The study was conducted in pots in open field, at the Experimental Farm of the Federal University of Goias – Sectional of Jatai. It was in a fully delineated in factorial schemes with 5 replicates in 2 experiments.In the first experiment it was established the factorial scheme of 6X3, the first factor was composed of 5 herbicides (glyphosate + carfentrazone-ethyl, glyphosate + parquet, glyphosate + diclosulam, glyphosate + s-metolachlor, glyphosate), more to the check (without herbicides) and the second factor for 3 species of crotalaria (C. juncea, C. spectabilis and C. ochroleuca). The second experiment it was in scheme of 7X3, whereupon it was 6 herbicides (glyphosate + sulfentrazone, glyphosate + clomazone + carfentrazone-ethyl, glyphosate + 2,4-D, glyphosate + chlorimuron-ethyl, glyphosate + flumioxazin, glyphosate), more to the check (without herbicides) and the second factor for 3 species of crotalaria (C. juncea, C spectabilis and C ochroleuca). In both experiments it was simulated the application in the system of planting, being evaluated, the rate of emergency speed; the percentage of emerged plants; the height of plants; the dry mass of the aerial part and the root system. It was verified that the 3 species of crotalaria evaluated showed different behaviors for the same herbicide treatment.. The glyphosate + diclosulam e o glyphosate +s-metolachlor were not selective for the specie C. ochroleuca. The glyphosate + flumioxazin were not shown to be selective for the 3 species of crotalaria under study. / Crotalaria juncea, C. spectabilis e C. ochroleuca são fertilizantes naturais que conseguem controlar a população de nematóides no solo, sendo utilizadas em consorcio ou sucessão pelos agricultores do Centro-Oeste brasileiro. Como não existem produtos registrados para essa cultura e são escassas as informações sobre a seletividade de herbicidas nessas espécies, tornou-se um entrave para os agricultores o controle de plantas daninhas. Dessa forma, objetivou-se investigar herbicidas que apresentam seletividade para as espécies de C. juncea, C. spectabilis e C. ochroleuca. O estudo foi conduzido em vasos no campo aberto, na Fazenda Experimental da Universidade Federal de Goiás – Regional Jataí, em delineamento inteiramente casualizado em esquemas fatoriais com cinco repetições em dois experimentos. No primeiro experimento estabeleceu o esquema fatorial 6x3, onde primeiro fator foi composto por 5 herbicidas (glyphosate + carfentrazone-ethyl, glyphosate + paraquat , glyphosate + diclosulam, glyphosate + s-metolachlor, glyphosate) mais a testemunha (sem herbicidas) e o segundo fator por 3 espécies de crotalária (C. juncea, C. spectabilis e C. ochroleuca). O segundo experimento foi no esquema 7x3, no qual foram 6 herbicidas (glyphosate + sulfentrazone, glyphosate + clomazone + carfentrazone-ethyl, glyphosate + 2,4-D, glyphosate + chlorimuron-ethyl, glyphosate + flumioxazin, glyphosate) mais a testemunha (sem herbicidas) e o segundo fator composto por 3 espécies de crotalária (C. juncea, C. spectabilis e C. ochroleuca). Em ambos os experimentos foi simulada a aplicação no sistema aplique-plante, avaliando-se o índice de velocidade de emergência; a porcentagem de plantas emergidas; a altura de plantas; a massa seca da parte aérea e do sistema radicular. Constatou-se que as três espécies de crotalária avaliadas demonstraram comportamentos distintos para um mesmo tratamento herbicida. O glyphosate + diclosulam e o glyphosate + s-metolachlor não foram seletivos para a espécie C. ochroleuca. O glyphosate + flumioxazin não demonstrou ser seletivo para as três espécies de crotalária avaliadas.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Due to the large number and complexity of factors influencing the study of efficiency and efficacy of pesticide application technology, it becomes difficult to develop multivariate methods, to define indicators of interdisciplinary and integrative manner, to control phytosanitary crops. This work conducted with the objective to develop a Decision Support System in Precision Application Technology (SISD-TAP). Which can form simple, practical and effective, providing alternatives and / or scenarios: Normalized (application volume Producer DPRD, Q1), Efficient Biologically (application volume biologically Efficient (DBE, Q2) and Climate / Target (application volume critical DCR, Q3) to the farmer for management control of pests and diseases in your crops. Based on criteria of sustainability and leveraging the vast amounts of information from various surveys and tactical models developed over more than five decades of research in the area of pest management and application technology. The SISD-TAP (Alpha version), allows the analysis of factors associated with cultivation, agro climate, pests, machines and equipment, technology implementation and environmental aspects socioeconomic, to decide on: (1) When is the best time of the application, (2) What are your operational parameters, (3) the efficiency of application requirements and (4) Which will be the implementation costs and environmental hazards expected. Directed with the purpose to enable the optimization of pest control, and promote the adoption of modern management of agribusiness (precision farming and/or management specific sites), with the use of innovative agricultural mechanization (for example systems intelligent sensors and robotics) in order to improve in production. / Devido ao grande número e à complexidade dos fatores que influenciam o estudo da eficiência e eficácia da tecnologia de aplicação de fitossanitários, torna-se realmente difícil desenvolver métodos multifatoriais para a definição de indicadores de forma interdisciplinar e integradora do controle fitossanitário. Nesse sentido, este trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de desenvolver um Sistema de Apoio a Decisões em Tecnologia de Aplicação de Precisão (SISD-TAP) que possa, de forma simples, prática e efetiva, prover o produtor agrícola de alternativas e/ou cenários: Normalizado (Volume de aplicação produtor DPrd, Q1), Biologicamente Eficiente (Volume de aplicação Biologicamente Eficiente DBE, Q2) e Clima/Alvo (Volume de aplicação Crítica DCR, Q3), para a gestão do controle das pragas e doenças dos sistemas usados. Assim, este trabalho é baseado em critérios de sustentabilidade e aproveita a vasta quantidade de informação das diversas pesquisas e modelos táticos desenvolvidos ao longo de mais de cinco décadas de estudos, na área de manejo de pragas e tecnologia de aplicação O SISD-TAP (versão Alpha) permite a análise dos fatores associados ao cultivo, ao clima, às pragas, às máquinas e aos equipamentos, à tecnologia de aplicação e aos aspectos socioeconômicos e ambientais para decidir sobre: (1) Qual é o melhor momento da aplicação, (2) Quais seus parâmetros operacionais, (3) Qual a eficiência de aplicação requerida e (4) Quais serão os custos de aplicação. O sistema foi projetado para possibilitar a otimização do controle das pragas, além de promover a adoção de uma gestão moderna do agronegócio (agricultura de precisão e/ou gestão de sítios específicos) e utilização de tecnologias inovadoras da mecanização agrícola (por exemplo, sistemas inteligentes, sensores e robótica), visando à melhoria na produção e sustentabilidade das empresas agrícolas.

Phytosanitary care as a part of environmental law consists of multiple actions and procedures which aim to guarantee plant health and favourable status of the environment. Mostly, we are talking about plant care related to various agricultural activities. It is necessary to achieve these objectives while keeping the crop yields and its quality on certain level. Regarding the above mentioned, it is desirable to keep looking for new technologies and options which are effective and ecological at the same time. Currently, the focus is on reduction of the chemical preparations use level which have an adverse effect on the environment including animals and plants exposed to their negative impact. As well as the impact on human health. To gather relevant information and data, long- term observations and measurements are crucial since the negative effects may occur long time after exposure to certain chemicals. Very important is also the role of research and analyses which determine subsequent procedures. Based on these inputs the important information may be spread via education and publishing means - this part is essential for enhancing and supporting general awareness of related topics. Public awareness is absolutely fundamental since phytosanitary issues are related to a great amount of people who can...

Citrus black spot (CBS), caused by Guignardia citricarpa Kiely, occurs in various citrus producing regions of the world. Due to the potential phytosanitary risk associated with the export of fruit from CBS positive production areas to CBS-free countries, restrictive trade barriers have been introduced. This study aimed to further elucidate some epidemiological aspects of CBS that can be used to address critical questions identified in the pest risk assessment submitted by South Africa to the World Trade Organisation to address phytosanitary trade restrictions. Results indicated that Eureka lemon leaf litter exposed to viable pycnidiospores under controlled conditions or in the field in different production regions of South Africa, were not infected and colonised by G. citricarpa. Symptomatic CBS fruit or peel lying on the ground underneath citrus trees therefore can not lead to infection and colonisation of freshly detached leaves or leaf litter, or represent a source of inoculum in citrus orchards. Symptomatic fruit therefore pose no danger for the establishment of the pathogen in CBS-free orchards and are not considered to be a pathway for the pathogen. The period of leaf susceptibility to G. citricarpa was indicated to be maximum eight and ten months from development, for Valencia orange and Eureka lemon, respectively, in a greenhouse study. The susceptibility period of citrus leaves to infection by the black spot pathogen could be longer than previously perceived. Ascospores were captured, using the newly developed Kotzé Inoculum Monitor (KIM), from natural Valencia orange and Eureka lemon leaf litter during October to March with peak ascospore availability between December to February. The KIM is the first sampler designed to capture fungal spores directly from plant material in the laboratory without environmental influences and was effectively used to confirm that ascospores production is seasonal. The KIM in combination with environmental data can be used to improve control through more targeted fungicide applications. Techniques such as isolations and DNA amplification with species-specific primers to detect the pathogen directly from symptomless green leaves have a low success rate due to the restricted growth of the pathogen in latently infected tissue. Artificial leaf wilting enhanced the detection of G. citricarpa from symptomless leaves. Leaf wilting is a reliable, fast and effective method to detect the CBS pathogen and can be applied to monitor citrus nurseries and orchards throughout the year. It can also be applied to monitor pest-free orchards to maintain its CBS pest-free status. This study confirmed that sanitation practices, such as leaf litter removal and mulching of leaf litter with wheat straw can decrease the primary inoculum, ascospores, of CBS and contribute to better management of the disease in a commercial orchard. Regardless of the prevailing climatic conditions each year, control achieved through leaf litter management resulted in >95% clean fruit and are equal to the control achieved with industry standard fungicides. This approach provided improved integrated disease control and an alternative to chemical control. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Microbiology and Plant Pathology / unrestricted