Le développement rapide de l’industrie chimique dans le monde et les risques insoupçonnables et souvent insidieux des produits chimiques ont permis à la communauté internationale de réglementer la commercialisation de ces produits. Ainsi, il a été élaboré des textes et des Conventions internationales réglementant le commerce de ces produits. L’objectif de la majorité de ces instruments est de favoriser le développement économique sans pour autant mettre à mal la santé publique et l’environnement. L’application de ces instruments internationaux a seulement atteint une maturité dans les pays industrialisés mais pose un véritable problème de société dans les pays en développement. L’effectivité de ces règles dans les pays en développement et principalement au Bénin est problématique. Les Etats se doivent de les ratifier ces instruments et de les transposer dans leurs législations nationales. Le législateur béninois a bien suivi cette démarche à travers la loi n°91-004 du 11 février 1991 portant réglementation phytosanitaire au Bénin et la loi-cadre sur l’environnement dont les dispositions sont applicables en matière de substances chimiques ou de pesticides. Ces différentes lois, ont-elles permis d’atteindre les objectifs de la protection agricole, de la santé publique, et de l’environnement ? Comment peut-on mettre en jeu la responsabilité des distributeurs béninois en cas de dommages liés à ces produits ? Les réponses à ces interrogations nous ont permis de constater des défaillances dans ces lois et que le législateur béninois doit moderniser sa législation dans le but de renforcer l’encadrement de ces produits. Quant aux mécanismes nationaux de responsabilité, la réforme à ce niveau est indispensable. Sinon les régimes de responsabilité ne permettent pas de responsabiliser les distributeurs. Les mécanismes de responsabilités existant dans le droit positif comportent des insuffisances pour une mise en œuvre efficace de la responsabilité des distributeurs. Ces insuffisances sont aussi bien réelles sur le plan de la responsabilité civile que pénal. Le législateur doit profondément revoir tout le dispositif applicable aux distributeurs, tout en modernisant le droit de la responsabilité civile avec la consécration de la responsabilité objective du fait des activités dangereuses. Aussi faudrait-il consacrer la responsabilité des personnes morales dans le droit pénal. / The rapid development of the chemical industry in the world and the unsuspected and often insidious risks of chemicals have enabled the international community to regulate the marketing of these chemicals. For example, texts and international conventions regulating trade in these products have been developed. The majority of these instruments aim to promote economic development without undermining public health and the environment. The application of these international instruments has only reached maturity in the industrialized countries but poses a real societal problem in the developing countries. The effectiveness of these rules in developing countries, and especially in Benin, is problematic. States must ratify these instruments and transpose them into national legislation.The Beninese legislator has indeed followed this approach through Act No. 91-004 of 11 February 1991 on phytosanitary regulations in Benin and the framework law on the environment, the provisions of which apply to chemical substances or pesticides. Have these different laws made it possible to achieve the objectives of agricultural protection, public health and the environment? How can the Beninese distributors be held liable for damages related to these products? The answers to these questions allowed us to note deficiencies in these laws and that the Beninese legislator must modernize its legislation with the aim of reinforcing the supervision of these products. As for national accountability mechanisms, reform at this level is essential. Otherwise liability schemes do not allow distributors to be held accountable. The mechanisms of responsibility in the positive law contain inadequacies for an effective implementation of the responsibility of the distributors. These shortcomings are as real in terms of civil and criminal liability. The legislator must thoroughly review the entire system applicable to distributors, while modernizing the law of civil liability with the recognition of the objective liability for dangerous activities. Consequently, the liability of legal persons should be enshrined in criminal law.

A fundamental requirement in agricultural trade is that imported products are safe, and do not pose a risk to human, animal and plant health. To address this issue, all countries maintain measures to ensure that imported food is safe for consumers, and to prevent the spread of disease among animals and plants. These measures, by their nature, can affect competitiveness by increasing the costs of imports or prohibiting them altogether. To ensure that these measures are used for their intended purpose and not as protectionist measures, WTO member countries signed the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures. A growing number of studies attempt to quantify the effects of SPS regulations on international trade flows. However, precious little research is dedicated to determining the effects of specific phytosanitary regulations on trade flows and, more importantly, questions regarding SPS regulations and their impact as "trade barriers" or "trade catalysts" remain to be settled. This thesis contributes to existing literature in two ways. First, a comprehensive and user friendly database on specific phytosanitary regulations faced by U.S. exports of onions, peas, walnuts, apples, cherries, grapes, peaches/nectarines, oranges and strawberries to 176 countries is developed for the period 1999-2009. Second, this database is used for an empirical investigation to determine how existing SPS regulations affect U.S. fruit and vegetable exports. The results indicate that initially, phytosanitary treatments act as "barriers" to trade. However, as exporters' experience grows, the negative impact of treatments is reduced and eventually eliminated. / Master of Science

U.S. imports of fresh fruits and vegetables have increased sharply since the late 1980's. With increased imports come increased concerns that pests and diseases may infest shipments of fresh agricultural products. To address this concern, USDA's APHIS implements phytosanitary measures that mitigate pest and disease risks. These regulations vary from documentation requirements, inspection, or requiring that shipments receive a phytosanitary treatment. A growing body of literature attempts to assess the generic trade flow effects of SPS measures. Still, little evidence is available to shed light on the nature, size, and scope of SPS standards and their role as "trade barriers" versus "trade catalysts." This thesis fills the void in the literature in two respects. First, a novel database on phytosanitary measures pertaining to U.S. imports of 47 fresh fruit and vegetable products from 95 countries is developed for the period 1996-2007. This disaggregated approach allows for the effects of specific phytosanitary treatments to be identified. Second, following recent literature, the issue of "zeros" is addressed while estimating a gravity model of international trade. The findings suggest that phytosanitary treatments initially inhibit fresh fruit and vegetable imports. However, their trade reducing effects are uneven across product sectors, development status categories and treatment types. Finally, globally large exporters facing a treatment requirement ship more fresh fruits and vegetable relative to small exporters facing the same regulation, suggesting the role of SPS measures as "trade barriers" versus "trade catalysts" depends on the relative size of the exporter in the global market. / Master of Science

This dissertation consists of three essays examining the impacts of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures on agricultural trade. The first essay estimates the impact of the 2003 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) outbreak in the US on Japanese beef imports. I develop a source-differentiated demand system of fresh/chilled and frozen beef imports augmented with endogenous smooth transition functions. Results suggest that over one-half of the estimated income, own-price, and cross-price elasticities reached a new regime in the post-BSE period of Japanese beef imports where the competitive relationship and substitutability between US and Australian beef exports changed significantly. The second essay develops a product-line structural gravity model to estimate the trade flow effects of SPS measures that have been flagged as specific trade concerns in the World Trade Organization's (WTO's) SPS Committee meetings for the top 30 agricultural trading countries covering four major product sectors. Our findings are striking and call attention to the need for a deeper understanding of the impacts of SPS measures on WTO members' agricultural trade. Results show that the trade effects of SPS trade concern measures reduce exporters' agricultural trade by 67%, on average, during periods in which concerns were active. Significant heterogeneity in the trade effect of SPS measures exists with average estimated ad valorem equivalent tariffs ranging from 33% to 106%. The AVE effect of SPS concern measures maintained by the US is estimated at 42%, less than a half (a third) of the AVE effects of SPS concern measures imposed by the European Union (China). China's restrictions on Avian Influenza and ractopamine restrictions in pork exports are estimated to be the most prohibitive, causing an AVE effect of 120.3% and 88.9%, respectively. The third essay develops a discrete-time duration model to examine the extent to which these SPS concern measures affect the hazard rate of US agri-food exports during the 1995-2016 period. Results show that SPS concern measures raise the hazard rate of US agri-food exports by a range of 2.1%~15.3%, causing the predicted hazard rate to increase from 21.8% to a range of 23.6%~27.9%. This effect is heterogeneous across different agricultural sectors, with the most substantial effects occurring in US exports of meat, fruits, and vegetables. / Doctor of Philosophy / This dissertation consists of three essays on the examination of Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) Measures and their impacts on agricultural trade. The first essay estimates the impact of the US 2003 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE) outbreaks on Japanese beef imports. Using a source-differentiated demand system of fresh/chilled and frozen beef imports embedded with endogenous smooth transition functions, we find that over one-half of the estimated income, own-price, and cross-price elasticities have changed remarkably, causing the Japanese beef import market to reach a new regime in the post-BSE period where the substitution and/or competition relationships between the US and Australia have changed. The second essay develops a product-line structural gravity model to estimate the trade effects of SPS measures flagged as concerns in the WTO's SPS Committee meetings for the top 30 agricultural trading countries covering four major product sectors. Results show that the trade effects of SPS concern measures are negative and significant, with the average estimated AVE tariffs ranging 33%~106%. The AVE effect of SPS concern measures maintained by the US is estimated to be 42%, less than a half (a third) of the AVE effects of SPS concern measures imposed by the European Union (China). China's restrictions on Avian Influenza and various ractopamine restrictions in the production and export of pork products are estimated to be the most prohibitive, causing an AVE effect of 120.3% and 88.9%, respectively. The third essay applies a discrete-time duration model to examine the extent to which SPS concern measures affect the hazard rate of US agri-food exports in 1995-2016. Results show that SPS concern measures raise the hazard rate of US agri-food exports by a range of 2.1%~15.3%, causing the predicted hazard rate to increase from 21.8% to a range of 23.6%~27.9%. This effect is heterogeneous across different agricultural sectors, with the most substantial effects occurring in US exports of meat, fruits, and vegetables.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Thaumatotibia leucotreta, the false codling moth (FCM), is a phytosanitary pest in South Africa posing a substantial threat to many of the country’s international export markets. Its pest status is of high importance because it has a wide ecological range and has been reported in all areas where citrus is produced in South Africa. Many methods of control have been implemented, such as chemical and cultural control, mating disruption and sterile insect releases. There was a need to obtain a more accurate understanding of FCM biology on deciduous fruit in South Africa and this then us to pose the questions described in the chapters to follow. The first aim was focused on the possibility of FCM diapause during winter. If FCM were to undergo diapause this could pose further problems for control methods, but knowledge thereof could also assist in more accurate and timely control methods. Considering past research on other Lepidoptera species, four physiological traits were chosen as indicative of a diapause state. Water loss rate, metabolic rate and the supercooling points should be lower if the individuals were in a diapause state, with a higher fat content expected for these individuals. Diapause induction was attempted through a gradual lowering of the environmental temperature in combination with longer nights to simulate overwintering conditions. Diapause was not observed in these experimental individuals. The second aim was to better understand the field biology of FCM. This was studied through in-field flight ability studies and damage assessments on four fruit kinds. Six release dates were used to measure the flight ability. The highest recapture rates were at minimum temperatures above 16°C and maximum temperatures averaging above 30°C, although the recapture rates were not significant in relation to the amount released. The recapture rates in the different fruit kinds were not significantly different, with the amount recaptured at the closest distance of 30 m being significantly more than that of the other distances. This was also only for the last release at the warmest temperatures. Fruit damage assessments were conducted and we were able to rear wild FCM from Granny smith apples, Forelle pears, Larry Ann plums and Satsuma and Clementine citrus cultivars. Citrus infestations had the highest count and a prolonged occurrence compared to the other varieties, due to its later harvest period. The third aim was to study the developmental parameters of FCM in different fruit kinds and an artificial medium. Firstly, FCM did not infest apples, Royal Gala and Pink lady’s, under laboratory conditions. Results were obtained using Forelle pears, Clementines and Thompson seedless grapes. On average the grapes had the shortest FCM developmental time from egg to adult stage, followed by oranges and then pears. Pears had the lowest developmental success rate, with that of oranges and grapes being much higher. Infestations took place at the stalk end of the fruit for the grapes and oranges, with the pears being infested at the calyx end. Future research should include an in-field life cycle, to determine the life cycle of FCM on different economically important fruit kinds under field conditions. The focus could also be shifted to where FCM overwinter, leading to better preventative control leading to lower infestation pressure during harvest periods. This is of utmost importance in an environment where maximum residue levels for pesticides dictate market access. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Thaumatotibia leucotreta, die vals kodling mot (VKM) is ‘n fitosanitere pes in Suid Afrika, wat kan lei tot groot finansiele verliese. Die VKM se wye gasheerreeks en die feit dat dit al in al die sitrus verbouings-areas in Suid Afrika opgelet is, maak dit ‘n ernstige pes. Daar word van verskeie beheer metodes gebruik gemaak, insluitend chemiese en kulturele metodes. In sommige areas word daar ook van paaringsontwrigting en steriele insek vrylatings gebruik gemaak en hierdie metodes word gewoonlik met ander gekombineer. Daar is ‘n groot behoefte vir meer inligting omtrent die status van VKM in sagtevrugte in Suid Afrika en het gelei tot die vrae wat in hierdie studie aangespreuk word. Die eerste doelwit was om te bepaal of die VKM wel diapouse ondergaan. Dit sal verskeie beheermetodes belemmer, maar kennis hiervan kan meer gefokusde en gevolglik meer effektiewe beheermaatreels tot gevolg hê. Daar is gekyk na vier fisiologiese eienskappe wat beduidend tot diapouse van ander Lepidoptera spesies is. Daar word verwag dat VKM wat diapouse ondervind ‘n hoër vetinhoud sal he, terwyl die metabolise tempo, “supercooling’ punte en tempo van waterverlies laer sal wees. Hierdie eienskappe kon egter nie by die individue geidentifiseer word nie. Ons het diapouse probeer induseer deur gebruik te maak van ‘n gesimuleerde oorgang na winterstoestande in die laboratorium. Die toestande het toegelaat vir korter dae en laer gemiddelde temperature gedurende beide die dag en nag. Die tweede doelwit waarna gekyk is, is die bepaling van VKM se beweging in die boorde en die vrugskade op verskillende vrugsoorte. Daar kon ‘n duidelike tendens geidentifiseer word in die toename van VKM hervangs by temperature bo ‘n minimum van 16°C en gemiddelde maksimum bo 30°C. Daar was 6 vrylatings periodes, met geen betekenisvolle getalle van hervangs nie. Daar was geen betekenisvolle verskille tussen die hervangsgetalle in die verskillende vrugsoorte nie, alhoewel die 30m lokval ‘n betekenisvol hoër gemiddelde hervangs gehad het, in vergelyking met lokvalle by 60m en 90m. Die hoeveelheid vrugskade is ook gemonitor op Granny smith appels, Forelle pere, Larry Ann pruime en Satsuma en Clementine sitrus kultivars. Die vrugte is na die laboratorium geneem waar die VKM tyd gegee is om uit te broei. Al die vrugsoorte het VKM volwassenes opgelewer, maar die eksperiment kon nie op appels in die laboratorium herhaal word tydens die toets van verkillende onwikkeling stadiums nie. Ons glo dus die VKM wat hier vanaf appels uitgebroei het, is weens sekondere infeksies in die boorde. Die hoogste skadetelling is in die sitrusboord gevind. Die derde doelwit was om die duur van onderskeie ontwikkeling stadiums te bepaal op vier vrugsoorte, sowel as op ‘n kunsmatige medium. Ons het ondervind dat die VKM nie Royal Gala of Pink lady kultivars kan infesteer onder laboratorium toestande nie. Die vrugsoorte wat dus ontwikkeling kon onderhou was Forelle pere, Clementines en Thompson pitlose druiwe. Die ontwikkeling vanaf eier na volwasse stadium was die kortste op druiwe, gevolg deur lemoene en pere. Die pere het die minste VKM onderhou in vergelyking met die lemoene en druiwe. Al die vrugte is binnegedring naby die aansluiting van die stingel aan die vrugte, behalwe die pere wat nader aan die kelk binnegedring is. Toekomstige navorsing sal gefokus moet word op die lewenssiklus in die veld, vir die verskillende vrugsoorte. Daar sal ook gekyk moet word na die spesifieke alternatiewe gashere of plekke waar die VKM kan oorwinter sodat beheer meer voorkomend plaas kan vind. Dit sal infestasie vlakke onderdruk, om veral laer druk tydens oesperiodes te verseker. Dit is uiters belangrik om beheer stategieë te kombineer met die hoeveelheid druk vanaf uitvoermarkte oor maksimum residu vlakke van chemiese middels.

O tratamento de sementes tem como objetivo tradicional erradicar ou reduzir os fungos associados às sementes, além de protegê-las de patógenos presentes no solo. Algumas doenças que ocorrem na parte área das plantas podem ser manejadas através do tratamento das sementes com produtos sistêmicos. Essa forma de controle tem sido utilizada há muitos anos, visando o controle de fungos biotróficos em arroz e trigo. A ferrugem asiática da soja é a principal doença que ataca a cultura, a qual necessita de ferramentas eficientes para seu manejo. O objetivo desta dissertação foi verificar a contribuição do tratamento de sementes de soja com produtos fitossanitários no manejo da ferrugem asiática. Desta forma, produtos fitossanitários foram aplicados às sementes de soja em diferentes doses, a fim de se verificar os efeitos fitotóxicos sobre sementes e plântulas que eventualmente fossem causados pelos mesmos. As maiores doses não fitotóxicas de cada tratamento foram selecionadas, novamente aplicadas às sementes e distribuídas em campo experimental, onde se verificou o efeito do tratamento das sementes isoladamente ou com a aplicação foliar de fungicidas foliares, no manejo da ferrugem asiática da soja. Ciproconazol + azoxistrobina (10,0 + 25,0g i.a./100kg de sementes), difenoconazol (50,0), epoxiconazol (2,5), fluquinconazol (50,0), flutriafol (10,0), flutriafol TS (5,0), flutriafol + tiofanato metílico (10,0 + 50,0), tebuconazol (10,0), tebuconazol + trifloxistrobina (10,0 + 5,0), tetraconazol (10,0), triticonazol (25,0), acibenzolar-S-methyl (50,0) e pó de rocha (2,0) não apresentaram fitotoxicidade e foram comparados em campo. Ciproconazol + azoxistrobina (25,0 + 10,0g i.a./100kg de sementes) e epoxiconazol (2,5) diminuíram a emergência das plântulas de soja em campo. No ensaio somente com tratamento de sementes, sem aplicação de fungicida foliar, tebuconazol e tebuconazol + trifloxistrobina diminuíram a ferrugem asiática em plantas de soja. Quando se integrou a pulverização foliar de fungicidas, fluquinconazol, tebuconazol e tebuconazol + trifloxistrobina, diminuíram a severidade da ferrugem asiática da soja. Apesar de não aumentar o rendimento da cultura, o tratamento de sementes pode contribuir no manejo da ferrugem asiática da soja, mantendo a segurança e o rendimento do produtor. / Seed treatment has as traditional objective to eradicate or to reduce fungi associated with seeds and to protect them from soilborne pathogens. Some diseases that occur in the aerial part of plants may be managed through seed treatment with systemic products. This kind of control has been used for many years, aiming the control of biotrophic fungi in rice and wheat. Soybean\'s asian rust is the main disease that attacks the culture, which needs efficient tools for its management. The objective of this study was to verify the contribution of soybean seed treatment with phytosanitary products in the management of asian rust. In this case, phytosanitary products were applied to soybean seeds in different doses, aiming to verify the phytotoxicity effects onto seeds and seedlings that eventually would be caused by these products. The highest non phytotoxic doses of each treatment were selected, applied again to seeds and these were distributed on experimental field, where it was verified the effect of each seed treatment with and without foliar application of fungicides, in the management of soybean\'s asian rust. Ciproconazol + azoxystrobin (10,0 + 25,0g a.i./100kg of seeds), difenoconazol (50,0), epoxiconazol (2,5), fluquinconazole (50,0), flutriafol (10,0), flutriafol TS (5,0), flutriafol + thiophanate-methyl (10,0 + 50,0), tebuconazole (10,0), tebuconazole + trifloxystrobin (10,0 + 5,0), tetraconazole (10,0), triticonazole (25,0), acibenzolar-S-methyl (50,0) and rock powder (2,0) did not present phytotoxicity and were compared in field. Ciproconazol + azoxystrobin (25,0 + 10,0g a.i./100kg of seeds) and epoxiconazol (2,5) decreased the seedling\'s emergency in field. In the experiment with only seed treatment, with no foliar fungicide application, tebuconazole and tebuconazole + trifloxystrobin decreased asian rust in soybean plants. When the application of foliar fungicide was integrated, fluquinconazole, tebuconazole and tebuconazole + trifloxystrobin the asian rust severity decreased. Despite there was no increase in the culture yield, seed treatment can contribute in asian rust´s management, increasing the safety an the revenue of the producer.

O tratamento quarentenário visa eliminar ou reduzir o nível de população de pragas que podem estar presentes em alimentos como grãos ou frutas, pois, durante o período de armazenamento, é comum ocorrer a degradação e deterioração de produtos por insetos, o que resulta em muitas perdas pós-colheita. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos da radiação gama em sementes de milho-pipoca, e em seu índice de capacidade de expansão (ICE). Os grãos foram infestados com inseto-praga Sitophillus zeamais no Laboratório de Irradiação de Alimentos no IPEN-CNEN/SP, sendo então submetidos a diferentes doses de radiação gama de 0,025; 0,050; 0,075 e 0,100 kGy para fins fitossanitários e doses de 1, 5, 10 e 15 kGy para análise de Índice de Capacidade de Expansão (ICE). As amostras foram irradiadas no irradiador de Cobalto-60, modelo Gammacell 220 no Centro de Tecnologia de Radiação (CTR) IPEN-CNEN/SP. Para os ensaios com insetos, cada tratamento consistiu em 3 repetições com 100 gramas de grãos de milho. As amostras foram acondicionadas e armazenadas a uma temperatura de 25 ± 2°C e umidade relativa de 70 ± 5% e, em seguida, foram realizadas as contagens de insetos emergidos. Para mesurar o ICE, foram utilizados pipoqueira elétrica e micro-ondas. Todas as fases: ovo, larva e pupa revelaram-se sensíveis à radiação gama, sendo a dose de 0,050 kGy suficiente para controlar o surgimento de adultos. Portanto, doses maiores que 0,075 kGy devem ser utilizadas para garantir o tratamento quarentenário do Sitophilus zeamais. A dose de 15 kGy foi a única que apresentou valores de Índice de capacidade de expansão (26,7 mL/g) abaixo do estipulado pela legislação (30 mL/g). Concluiu-se, então, que, para fins de tratamento quarentenário e melhoramento tecnológico, a dose adequada é de 0,1 kGy. / The quarantine treatment aims to eliminate or reduce the level of pest population that can be associated with products such as grains or fruits. Many post-harvest losses in stored products result from the degradation and deterioration caused by insects. Considering this context, the objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of gamma radiation on popcorn seeds and on the popping expansion index. The grains were purchased in the retail trade of the city of São Paulo, later infested in the Laboratory of Food Irradiation at IPEN-CNEN/SP, and then submitted to different doses of gamma radiation: 0,025; 0,050; 0,075 and 0,100 kGy for phytosanitary purposes and doses of 1, 5, 10 and 15 kGy for Popping Expansion Index (PEI) analysis. The samples were irradiated in the Cobalt-60 irradiator; model Gammacell 220 with a dose rate of 1.4 kGy/ h at the IPEN-CNEN/SP Radiation Technology Center (CTR). Each treatment consisted of 3 replicates with 100 grams of corn grains. The samples were conditioned and stored at a temperature of 25 ± 2°C and relative humidity of 70 ± 5%. Then, the counts of emerged insects were carried out. All phases: egg, larva and pupa were sensitive to gamma radiation. A dose of 0.100 kGy was sufficient to control the emerged of adult and should be used to ensure quarantine treatment of Sitophilus zeamais on stored popcorn grains. The 15 kGy dose was the only one that presented values of expansion capacity index (26.7 mL/g) below that stipulated by the Brazilian legislation (30 mL/g). It Was concluded that, for the purpose of quarantine treatment and technological improvement, for popping index the appropriate dose is 0,1 kGy in popcorn seeds.

Na região Centro-Oeste do Brasil, o aparecimento de percevejos migrantes da cultura da soja como Nezara viridula (Linnaeus, 1758) e Piezodorus guildinii (Westood,1873), após o processo de colheita , em lavouras de algodão, tem aumentado o interesse dos produtores em relação ao seu controle. Este trabalho teve o objetivo de verificar os tipos de danos que podem ser causados pelos percevejos N. viridula e P. guildinii nas maçãs e nas fibras do algodoeiro em três fases de desenvolvimento: até 10 dias após a florada, até 20 dias após a florada e até 30 dias após a florada. Para tanto, foram realizadas coletas na região Piracicaba, SP, além da criação em laboratório das duas espécies de pentatomídeos citadas. Os resultados obtidos evidenciaram as injúrias causadas às maçãs (externas, internas e também às fibras) por meio das sucessivas picadas dos percevejos, e permitem concluir que tanto N. viridula como P. guildinii causam queda significativa de maçãs até 10 dias após a florada e que independente da densidade de infestação, provocam danos nas características de produção e tecnológicas da fibra e do fio do algodoeiro, tendo como conseqüência não só a perda de produtividade como também da qualidade da fibra destinada à indústria. / The occurrence of migrant bugs from soybean e.g. Nezara viridula (Linnaeus, 1758) and Piezodorus guildinii (Westood, 1873), in the Centro-Oeste region of Brazil, soon after harvest in cotton farms has increased the farmers interest about tatics to control these pests. This work was carried out to verify the damage that N. viridula and P. guildinii cause in bolls and fiber at three developmental stages: until 10, 20 and 30 days after flowering. So, samples were taken at Piracicaba, State of São Paulo, Brazil, and a laboratory rearing of these two pentatomid species was set up. The results showed the damages to the bolls (external, internal and fibers) by sucessive sting bites and lead to the conclusion that N. viridula and P. guildinii cause significantly boll drop until 10 days after flowering and without relation with infestation density they damage the technological and production characteristics of cotton fiber and strings, therefore reducing yield and also the fiber industrial quality.

Foram realizados experimentos em laboratório, casa-de-vegetação e campo visando os seguintes objetivos: (i) avaliar a eficiência de diferentes métodos de detecção do fungo Fusarium graminearum em sementes de trigo (Triticum aestivum L.); (ii) estudar o efeito do patógeno na germinação das sementes, bem como na emergência de plântulas e verificar a sua transmissão da semente para a plântula; (iii) avaliar o efeito de diferentes doses de nitrogênio (0, 30, 60, 90, 120 e 180 kg.ha-1), cultivares (IAC - 24, IAC - 350 e IAC - 370), aplicação de mistura de fungicidas (triciclazole + tebuconazol: três aplicações de 0,75 L.ha-1) na parte aérea das plantas na incidência de F. graminearum; (iv) avaliar o efeito do tratamento de sementes de trigo na incidência do patógeno empregando, individualmente, os seguintes fungicidas com as respectivas dosagens (g i.a.100 kg-1 de sementes): captana (150,0), tiofanato metílico (75,0), triflumizole (45,0), triticonazole (45,0), triadimenol (13,5), tolyfluanida (75,0), tebuconazole (5,0), fludioxonil (5,0), difeconazole (30,0) e thiabendazole (30,0). Na detecção de F. graminearum em sementes de trigo da cultivar BR 23 foram utilizados os seguintes métodos: meio semi-seletivo (MSS); MSS + 2,4- D (0,02%); MSS + KCl (-0,8MPa); papel de filtro (PF) com e sem o congelamento das sementes; PF + 2,4 - D (0,02%); restritores hídricos (KCl, NaCl, manitol e sacarose) nos potenciais osmóticos de -0,4, -0,6, -0,8 e -1,0 MPa. A maior incidência do patógeno foi observada com a utilização de MSS + 2,4 - D e a menor percentagem de sementes germinadas foi observada com o uso de PF com congelamento. A germinação de 30 diferentes genótipos de trigo foi significativamente influenciada pela quantidade de sementes mortas com a presença de F. graminearum, contudo não foi encontrada correlação entre a incidência do patógeno e a germinação das sementes. Também foi constatado que o fungo não afeta a emergência das plântulas, contudo verificou-se que a sua taxa de transmissão para diferentes partes da plântula (raiz, colo e haste) é variável de acordo com a com o genótipo infectado. O inóculo da semente pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de epidemias no campo. Verificou-se que maiores doses de N promovem o aumento da incidência do patógeno nas sementes, enquanto que a aplicação da mistura de fungicidas promove a redução. Não houve diferenças significativas entre as cultivares IAC - 250, IAC - 350 e IAC - 370 na incidência do patógeno. No tratamento químico de sementes de trigo da cultivar BR 18 Terena, as menores incidências do fungo foram observadas empregando-se os fungicidas tiofanato metílico e tebuconazole. Não houve influência dos fungicidas tanto na germinação quanto na emergência e velocidade de emergência de plântulas. Por outro lado, fungicidas como o captana, triticonazole, tebuconazole e triadimenol afetaram negativamente a altura de plântulas, interferindo no desempenho das mesmas. / Experiments were carried out in laboratory, green house and field aiming at the following objectives: (i) to evaluate the efficiency of different methods of detection of Fusarium graminearum; (ii) to study the effect of the pathogen in the germination of wheat seeds, as well as in the emergence of seedlings and to verify the transmission of the seed to the seedling; (iii) to evaluate the effect of different dosages of nitrogen (0, 30, 60, 90, 120 and 180 kg.ha-1), in the incidence of cultivars (IAC - 24, IAC - 350 and IAC - 370) and the application of a mixture of fungicides (triciclazole + tebuconazol: three applications of 0,75 L.ha-1) in the aerial part of the plants in the incidence of F. graminearum; (iv) to evaluate the effect of the treatment of wheat seeds in the incidence of the pathogen employed individually, the following fungicides, with the respective dosages (g i.a.100 kg-1 of seeds): captana (150,0), methylic tiophanate (75,0), triflumizole (45,0), triticonazole (45,0), triadimenol (13,5), tolyfluanida (75,0), tebuconazole (5,0), fludioxonil (5,0), difeconazole (30,0) and thiabendazole (30,0). In the detection of F. graminearum in wheat seeds of the cultivar BR 23 the following methods were used: semiselective media (MSS); MSS + 2,4-D (0,02%); MSS + KCl (-0,8MPa); blotter (PF) with and without the freezing of the seeds; 2,4 PF + - D (0,02%); hidric restrictors (KCl, NaCl, manitol and sacarose) in the osmotic potentials of -0,4, -0,6, -0,8 and -1,0 MPa. The highest incidence of the pathogen was observed with the use of MSS + 2,4 - D and the lowest percentage of germinated seeds was observed with the use deep freezing blotter method of PF with freezing. The germination of 30 different wheat genotypes was significantly influenced by the quantity of dead seeds with the presence of F. graminearum. However, correlation between the incidence of the pathogen and the germination of the seeds was not found. It was found that the fungus does not affect the emergence of seedlings, however it was verified that its rate of transmission for different parts of seedling is variable in accordance with the infected genotype. It was also verified that higher doses of N promote the increase of the incidence of the pathogen in the seeds, and that the application of the mixture of fungicides promotes the reduction. There was no effect of cultivars IAC - 250, IAC - 350 e IAC - 370 on the incidence of pathogen. Regarding the chemical treatment of wheat seeds of cultivar BR 18 Terena, the lowest incidences of the fungus were observed using the fungicides methylic tiophanate and tebuconazole. There was no effect of fungicides both on the germination and on the seedlings emergence and emergence velocity. On the other hand, fungicides such as the captan, triticonazole, tebuconazole and triadimenol affected the height of plântulas negatively, interfering with their performance.

O tratamento quarentenário visa eliminar ou reduzir o nível de população de pragas que podem estar presentes em alimentos como grãos ou frutas, pois, durante o período de armazenamento, é comum ocorrer a degradação e deterioração de produtos por insetos, o que resulta em muitas perdas pós-colheita. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi avaliar os efeitos da radiação gama em sementes de milho-pipoca, e em seu índice de capacidade de expansão (ICE). Os grãos foram infestados com inseto-praga Sitophillus zeamais no Laboratório de Irradiação de Alimentos no IPEN-CNEN/SP, sendo então submetidos a diferentes doses de radiação gama de 0,025; 0,050; 0,075 e 0,100 kGy para fins fitossanitários e doses de 1, 5, 10 e 15 kGy para análise de Índice de Capacidade de Expansão (ICE). As amostras foram irradiadas no irradiador de Cobalto-60, modelo Gammacell 220 no Centro de Tecnologia de Radiação (CTR) IPEN-CNEN/SP. Para os ensaios com insetos, cada tratamento consistiu em 3 repetições com 100 gramas de grãos de milho. As amostras foram acondicionadas e armazenadas a uma temperatura de 25 ± 2°C e umidade relativa de 70 ± 5% e, em seguida, foram realizadas as contagens de insetos emergidos. Para mesurar o ICE, foram utilizados pipoqueira elétrica e micro-ondas. Todas as fases: ovo, larva e pupa revelaram-se sensíveis à radiação gama, sendo a dose de 0,050 kGy suficiente para controlar o surgimento de adultos. Portanto, doses maiores que 0,075 kGy devem ser utilizadas para garantir o tratamento quarentenário do Sitophilus zeamais. A dose de 15 kGy foi a única que apresentou valores de Índice de capacidade de expansão (26,7 mL/g) abaixo do estipulado pela legislação (30 mL/g). Concluiu-se, então, que, para fins de tratamento quarentenário e melhoramento tecnológico, a dose adequada é de 0,1 kGy. / The quarantine treatment aims to eliminate or reduce the level of pest population that can be associated with products such as grains or fruits. Many post-harvest losses in stored products result from the degradation and deterioration caused by insects. Considering this context, the objective of this work was to evaluate the effects of gamma radiation on popcorn seeds and on the popping expansion index. The grains were purchased in the retail trade of the city of São Paulo, later infested in the Laboratory of Food Irradiation at IPEN-CNEN/SP, and then submitted to different doses of gamma radiation: 0,025; 0,050; 0,075 and 0,100 kGy for phytosanitary purposes and doses of 1, 5, 10 and 15 kGy for Popping Expansion Index (PEI) analysis. The samples were irradiated in the Cobalt-60 irradiator; model Gammacell 220 with a dose rate of 1.4 kGy/ h at the IPEN-CNEN/SP Radiation Technology Center (CTR). Each treatment consisted of 3 replicates with 100 grams of corn grains. The samples were conditioned and stored at a temperature of 25 ± 2°C and relative humidity of 70 ± 5%. Then, the counts of emerged insects were carried out. All phases: egg, larva and pupa were sensitive to gamma radiation. A dose of 0.100 kGy was sufficient to control the emerged of adult and should be used to ensure quarantine treatment of Sitophilus zeamais on stored popcorn grains. The 15 kGy dose was the only one that presented values of expansion capacity index (26.7 mL/g) below that stipulated by the Brazilian legislation (30 mL/g). It Was concluded that, for the purpose of quarantine treatment and technological improvement, for popping index the appropriate dose is 0,1 kGy in popcorn seeds.