Please read the abstract in the section 00front of this document / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Geography, Geoinformatics and Meteorology / MA / Unrestricted

Cette thèse porte sur la construction de la figure du consommateur pauvre en France. Plus spécifiquement, nous nous intéressons aux mécanismes qui sous-tendent le sentiment d’appartenance à la société de consommation pour les travailleurs pauvres. En nous inspirant des travaux de Michel Foucault, nous mettons à jour la manière dont la consommation et les acteurs du marché ont un rôle historiquement décisif dans la construction de formes de gouvernementalité. A cet effet, nous avons conduit une recherche historique afin de comprendre les transformations des représentations sur les pauvres en France depuis les années 1950. Parallèlement, nous avons réalisé des entretiens longs et des collages auprès de 16 travailleurs pauvres en France, afin de comprendre leur interprétation de cette appartenance. Notre analyse interprétative révèle que les discours de consommation des travailleurs pauvres sont structurés autour de la notion de responsabilisation. La responsabilisation agit comme un dispositif au sens foucaldien, qui influence trois types d’appartenance de ces individus à la société de consommation : une appartenance légitime, une appartenance compétente et une appartenance modérée. Nous concluons cette recherche par une discussion sur les implications de la responsabilisation sur le processus de construction de lien social des ravailleurs pauvres. Nous mettons en valeur les implications de cette analyse pour les entreprises et certains organismes publics qui sont aujourd’hui de plus en plus enclins à « cibler » les consommateurs pauvres. / This thesis focuses on the construction of the poor consumer figure in France. Specifically, we are interested in the mechanisms underlying the sense of belonging to the consumption society in the case of working poor people. Inspired by Michel Foucault’s works, we are looking at the decisive historical role of consumption and market actors in the shaping of specific forms of governmentality. To this end, we have conducted a historical research in order to understand the transformations of the representations of poor people in France since the 1950s. In parallel, we have completed long interviews and collages with 16 working poor people in France, in order to understand their interpretation of this belonging. Our interpretive analysis reveals that working poor’s consumption discourses are produced around the notion of responsibilization. Responsibilization appears as a Foucaldian dispositif which is influencing three senses of belonging of these people to the consumption society: a legitimate one, a competent one and a moderate one. We conclude this research with a discussion on the implications of responsibilization in the working poor’s process of construction of social link. It reveals implications for the companies and public organizations which are more and more willing to “target” poor consumers.

Ph.D. (Sociology) / Please refer to full text to view abstract

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Background: Availing equitable and affordable health services for citizens is becoming a problem for governments of developing countries. In Ethiopia, the government has been implementing fee waiver scheme since 1998 to advance the health access by the poor, though it is still a crucial challenge of the health sector. Purpose: The intent of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of fee waiver scheme in improving access to health by the poor in Addis Ababa and to propose implementation framework to improve its outcome. Method: This study employed qualitative research approach to evaluate the program effectiveness and to propose implementation framework in two phases. Exploratory and descriptive case study designs, and Delphi techniques were utilized to evaluate the scheme’s effectiveness and to validate the proposed implementation framework. The researcher employed purposive and convenience sampling methods to sample the study populations, and used Atlas ti 7.5 software to analyze the findings. Result: This study revealed that the commencement of the scheme has benefited considerable poor population in the city. However, its effectiveness in terms of addressing the needy population, services coverage and protecting the poor from financial hardship is not yet achieved. Poor health facilities capacity, poor program management and lack of comprehensive monitoring and accountability system were found major factors that affected its success. As a result, the researcher proposed an implementation framework with the aim of addressing these problems. Conclusion: Achieving Universal Health Coverage without addressing the indigents’ health need is impossible. Lack of comprehensive health services, in adequate population coverage and poor financial protection were among the major findings. Hence, prior attentions should be given to equip health facilities with necessary infrastructures and ensure the inclusion of all needy populations through effective monitoring, governance and leadership mechanisms to improve its intended outcomes. If utilized properly, the findings and the implementation framework of this study will serve as valuable resources for immediate decisions and directions by the policy makers / Health Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Health Studies)

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This dissertation consists of three essays. In the first one (Chapter three), "Gains and Losses from Household Formation," I introduce a general equilibrium model, wherein a household may consist of more than one member, each with their own preferences and endowments. In these models at first, individuals form households. Then, collective decisions (or bargaining) within the household specifies the consumption plans of household members. Finally, competition across households determines a feasible allocation of resources. I consider a model with two types of individuals and pure group externalities. I investigate the competitive equilibrium allocation and stability of the equilibrium in that setting. Specifically, I show that under a certain set of assumptions a competitive equilibrium with free exit is also a competitive equilibrium with free household formation. Similar results are obtained for a special case of consumption externality. Illustrative examples, where prices may change as household structures change, are used to show how general equilibrium model with variable household structure works and some interesting results are discussed at the end of the first essay. In the second essay (Chapter four), “Effects of the Price System on Household Labor Supply,” I introduce leisure and labor into the two-type economy framework that was constructed in the first essay. The main objective of this essay is to investigate the effects of exogenous prices on the labor supply decisions, and completely analyze the partial equilibrium model outcomes in a two-type economy setting. I assume a wage gap and explore the effect of that gap on labor supply. The main content of the second essay is the analysis of the effect of change in wages, price of the private good, power of each individual in the household, relative importance of private consumption compared to leisure, and the level of altruism on individual's decisions about how much private good or leisure he/she wants to consume. The effect of a relative price change on labor supply, private consumption and utility level is also investigated. Moreover, one of the variations of Spence's signaling model is borrowed to explain why higher education of women in Iran does not necessarily translate into higher female labor force participation. Finally, fixed point theorem is used to calculate the power (or alternatively labor supply) of individuals in the household endogenously for the two-type economy with labor at the end of this essay. In the third essay (Chapter five), “Dynamics of Poverty in Iran: What Are the Determinants of the Probability of Being Poor?,” I explore the characteristics of the households who fall below the poverty line and stay there as well as those who climb up later. I decompose poverty in Iran into chronic and transient poverty, and investigate the relation of each component of poverty with certain characteristics of households. I also study mobility and the main characteristics of growth in expenditure of households. One of the main issues in economic policy making nowadays is the evaluation of effectiveness of anti-poverty programs. In order to achieve this goal one should be able to track down a household for a period of time. In this essay, I am going to investigate the dynamics of poverty in Iran during 1992-95. I am especially interested in finding the characteristics of the households that fall below the poverty line and stay there in addition to those that climb up later. Obviously, if policy-makers want to have efficient policies to reduce poverty, they should target the former group. I decompose poverty in Iran into chronic and transient poverty, and investigate the relation of each component of poverty with certain characteristics of households. I also study mobility in this period with an emphasis on mobility in and out of poverty and review the main characteristics of the growth in expenditure of households. / Ph. D.

In the United States, political and social attention to child health care remains insufficient, as it has for decades, especially that which serves the needs of low-income families. In response to this widespread negligence, many communities around the country have developed innovative programs to meet the needs of disadvantaged infants and children. That need for coordinated health services exists among poor children in the Roanoke Valley. The local solution has developed since 1988 as the Children's Health Investment Project (CHIP). This thesis explores, from a geographic perspective, how the relationship between enrolled families and their providers affects attitudes and perceptions toward health care services made available through CHIP. Also, the implications of the current spatial distribution of CHIP participants are examined for geographic relevance. / M.S.

The development of a community, especially a poor community, hinges on interventions from development workers in government and non government organisations. In the recent past, microfinance has been strongly recommended as an intervention that could assist poor people to improve their quality of life by providing small amounts of money to initiate development enterprises. The microfinance services are provided through microfinance institutions. This study was aimed at establishing the role of microfinance in the socioeconomic development of women in a community. Mpigi Town Council in Uganda was the study area. Fifty respondents were interviewed and eight of these were employees of microfinance institutions and two worked as technical staff from Mpigi District Local Government. Twelve microfinance institutions were identified as providing services to the community in Mpigi Town Council. A variety of literature on microfinance in the developed world, developing world, Africa, Uganda and Mpigi Town Council was reviewed. It was noted that the year 2005 was identified as the International Year of Micro-credit during which its significance would be highlighted. The aim of the international year of microcredit was to improve on the knowledge, access and utilization of micro-credit by poor people in the developing world. During the literature review, it was evident that the literature on the impact of microfinance on the socio-economic development of women in Mpigi Town Council was lacking. By filling this gap, this research will be a referral document for other researchers and a resource book for microfinance institutions during the implementation of their programmes. The study was carried out using both quantitative and qualitative methods. Questionnaires and interviews were used to collect the data that was presented in tables, graphs and numbers to show the role played by microfinance in the socio-economic development of women in a community.The findings of the study reveal that microfinance institutions operating in Mpigi Town Council provide services like training and skills development, insured credit facilities and savings mobilisation, banking facilities, supervision and monitoring of the clients, provision of agriculture inputs like seeds and chemicals and physical items like animals (cows, goats, pigs, sheep etc). The services are particularly provided to women groups, salary earners, and individual women and men. The repayment of the credit facilities is usually through weekly and monthly instalments. The size of the loan depends on the MFI but ranges from one hundred thousand to millions of shillings. The security usually required is group collateral in case of groups, salary in case of salary earners and any other as deemed necessary for the individual by the MFI. The study established that women who accessed the loans from MFIs were able to improve their socio-economic status through starting up and or expanding investments and enterprises, paying school fees for their children, purchase of household items like furniture, land and solar installation, building of houses, confidence building, participation in leadership roles etc. The research also found out that women face some challenges in their access and utilization of the MFI services and these include; small amounts of money disbursed, diversion of funds, high interest rates, low returns on investment, short grace periods, unfavourable repayment schedules and risk of property confiscation by the MFI. The respondents recommended that the government should intervene, especially where interest rate is concerned and centralize it or make it uniform and also monitor the operations of the MFIs so that they offer adequate services to the women. As far as the MFIs are concerned, the respondents recommended that they should lower the interest rate, empathize with their clients, monitor and supervise more vigorously, collaborate with fellow MFIs, increase grace period and enlist the support of employers in the area. For the microfinance beneficiaries, the beneficiaries recommended that they should not divert the funds but should use them for the purpose intended. Furthermore, they should not move from one MFI to another. They ought to acquire the loan when they have some investment already, study the MFI before acquiring the services and support each other as a group to ensure that there is progress in the various undertakings. The results of the research have led to the assertion and affirmation that although the benefits may vary from one beneficiary to another and from one community to another, microfinance has in various ways played a significant role in the socio-economic development of women in Mpigi Town Council. This research report will be used as a document for other researchers and a resource book for the microfinance institutions in Mpigi Town Council. / Development Studies / M.A. (Social Science (Development Studies)

This research focused on determining the roles and institutional arrangements for economic regulation of urban water services in Sub- Saharan Africa. Urban water service delivery mainly supplied by state owned utilities is constrained due to many factors one of which is related to insufficient or lack of a clear economic regulatory framework. The research used a multiple case study approach and systematically analysed the roles and institutional arrangements of economic regulation of urban water services in three countries of Ghana, Mozambique and Zambia. Based on literature as the source of information, the research developed the existing political and socio-economic environment in the different countries which can affect the design and determination of the roles and institutional arrangements for economic regulation. A further analysis was made of the perceptions on the roles and institutional arrangements of the regulatory framework in the Sub-Saharan African context through a questionnaire distributed beyond the three case countries. The study obtained primary data from focus group discussions, key informant interviews, official documents and observations. Lessons obtained through literature from regulatory institutions in other continents have also been included and these are Jamaica, Latvia, Jakarta in Indonesia, and England and Wales. The factors which can affect the roles and institutional arrangements of economic regulation of urban water services were divided into three groups as: including country governance, socioeconomic and sectoral factors. Country governance factors, which include political stability and fragility, are a key factor in the decision of whether to establish a regulatory agency. On the other hand, socio-economic factors influence the focus or areas which must not be ignored by economic regulation. The third type of factors which include the robustness of a policy framework, and performance levels of utilities, affect the effectiveness and efficiency of an economic regulator. Based on the evidence from the research, economic regulation in Sub-Saharan Africa should address five key roles, which are [i] approval of tariffs that will lead to service providers achieving commercial viability, [ii] "consumer protection" [iii] monitoring and enforcing performance standards, [iv] setting up of a knowledge bank on urban water services, and [v] ensuring that the poor gain sustained access to water services. There are a number of specific regulatory functions within each role. Sub-Saharan African countries are in a unique situation where the urban poor comprise as much as 60% of the urban population and so cannot be ignored in the design of a regulatory framework. The conclusion from this research is that in order to achieve the perceived benefits of economic regulation of urban water services in Sub-Saharan Africa, and subject to conducive and appropriate political and socio-economic environment, the more appropriate institutional arrangements is an autonomous regulatory agency. The autonomy of the regulatory agency will be enhanced if it has its own legal status, and is able to develop, manage and control its own budget financed from a regulatory fee charged on the regulated water providers. Governments should be willing to relinquish regulatory decision making powers to this non-political and non-governmental body. The reporting and appointing mechanisms for the board could also have an influence on the autonomy of the regulator. The research further concludes that economic regulation of urban water services is a necessary but perhaps not sufficient condition for efficient and effective delivery of urban water services. It is not a panacea to the enormous problems of urban water services but can play a very effective role. The research has further found that it is too early to determine the impact of utility regulation on the performance levels of utilities in those countries that have a clearly defined regulatory framework. Utility regulation is still in its infancy in Sub-Saharan Africa and its impact is therefore a subject for further research.