Relationship adjustment research is being expanded beyond established connections with communication and individual functioning. In recent years, researchers have looked to positive psychology and virtues. That research shifts the focus from psychopathology and communication to more core values and ways of being. The present study seeks to expand this knowledge base using Blaine Fowers (2000) framework of marital virtues. His framework views what a person puts into an intimate relationship as an important predictor of relationship adjustment. The present study uses this framework in conjunction with previous research to examine the direct and indirect links amongst individual functioning, marital virtues, communication, and marital adjustment. Data were collected from a sample of 422 married and cohabitating individuals using a self-report survey. Marital virtues and communication were found to partially mediate the relationship between individual well-being and relationship adjustment. In addition, communication was found to partially mediate the relationship between marital virtues and relationship adjustment. Findings provide initial support for the notion that character strengths matter to both communication and relationship adjustment.

The high prevalence of sexual abuse suffered by women as children is well documented, both internationally and in South Africa. The life outcomes of women who had experienced childhood sexual abuse are generally reported as adverse, yet some of these survivors manage to overcome the abusive relationship and experience positive changes in themselves and their lives. Emerging trauma literature thus supports a philosophical shift from a pathogenic to a autogenic paradigm in which the focus is on positive and adaptive post trauma outcomes. Previous trauma models, which were based on a pathogenic model, are now shifting to a positive psychology trend by incorporating a salutary component, which includes a spiritual and existential dimension as well as an area of potential emerging growth. Information on the constructive coping behaviours, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being of women who had experienced childhood sexual abuse can lead to the formulation of guidelines with strategies for an intervention programme that can facilitate and enhance coping, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being in survivors of childhood sexual abuse. This research investigated the coping behaviours, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being of women who had experienced childhood sexual abuse. The research was carried out in South Africa in the greater Gauteng Province and surrounding areas, with women who had experienced sexual abuse in childhood. A mixed method research design was used in which: the first phase was quantitative research conducted with validated psychometric instruments measuring coping behaviour, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being. These instruments were the COPE (Coping Self-efficacy Scale), the Posttraumatic Growth Inventory, the Mental Health Continuum, Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale and the General Health Questionnaire. The second phase was of a qualitative nature, and explored the stories and experiences of women identified as coping constructively, manifesting posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being, by using semi-structured interviews. Lastly, the data obtained was used to formulate guidelines with specific strategies, which can be used by helping professionals in a group context to facilitate and enhance constructive coping, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being in survivors of childhood sexual abuse. The results of this research were as follows: prevalence of constructive coping, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being was determined, and indicated that 58% of participants manifested constructive coping, 60% manifested posttraumatic growth and 42% manifested psychological well-being. Semi-structured interviews conducted with the women scoring in the upper range of coping constructively, growing after the trauma and emerging psychologically well were transcribed and analysed by means of interpretative phenomenological analysis, and the following broad themes emerged: psycho-socio spiritual resources, the healing process and positive strengths. These themes and sub-themes produced data which could be used in the formulation of guidelines with strategies for an intervention programme aimed at enhancing and facilitating constructive coping, posttraumatic growth and psychological well-being thereby improving the therapeutic services available to childhood sexual abuse survivors. Finally the study was evaluated and conclusions and recommendations were made. / PhD, Psychology, North-West University, Vaal Triangle Campus, 2012

With the introduction of positive psychology the aim with organisational psychology shifted to finding the 'happy/productive' worker and focusing more on work wellness. Historically, working in a higher education institution has generally been considered relatively stress-free and highly satisfying. However, recently the world of work has started to change drastically, which also holds true for higher education institutions. Since 1994, the democratic post apartheid government of South Africa has attempted to redress the injustices of the apartheid era. One of the focus areas of redress is the educational system. This has resulted in a restructuring of the broad higher education system, which implies consequences for the governance of all tertiary institutions. This research focused on the total spectrum of wellness - from unwell-being (e.g. burnout and stress) to well-being (e.g. work engagement). The moderating effects of organisational commitment and affectivity were investigated in order to establish a work wellness profile that will serve as basis for a wellness programme within the work environment. The objectives of this research were to standardise the MBI-GS, UWES and ASSET for employees of higher education institutions as well as to develop and test a causal model of work wellness for this specific group. The research findings are set out as four separate articles, each consisting of a brief literature overview and an empirical study. A cross-sectional design, whereby a sample is drawn from a population at a particular point in time, was used. The data for this study were collected from 372 academic and administrative employees at a higher education institution in South Africa. The Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI-GS), Cognitive Weariness Scale (CWS), Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), An Organisational Stress Screening Tool (ASSET), Job Characteristics Scale (JCS), Affectometer 2 (AFM) and a biographical questionnaire were administered. Descriptive statistics, correlations, analysis of variance, canonical analysis, multiple regression analysis and structural equation modelling were used. Structural equation modelling confirmed a four-factor model of burnout consisting of exhaustion, cynicism, professional efficacy, and cognitive weariness. The scales showed acceptable internal consistencies. Analysis of variance revealed differences in burnout for groups with different languages and different years of experience at the institution. A three-factor model of the three UWES dimensions of vigour, dedication and absorption was confirmed. Practically significant differences were found in engagement levels of employees in different language groups, those with different years of experience at the institution and between academic and administrative employees. Acceptable construct validity and internal consistency were found for the ASSET. Compared to normative data, the participants reported significantly high levels of physical ill health, psychological outcomes of stress, and perceived lack of commitment from the organisation. Analysis of variance revealed differences in occupational stress levels for all the biographical variables tested. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine the factors that predict burnout and work engagement. The results showed that engagement can be considered a positive indicator of employee wellness and that job resources and positive affectivity contribute to engagement. Work engagement was related to low burnout scores, while professional efficacy was associated with work engagement. Burnout and physical and emotional strain are negative indicators of employee wellness, while overload, negative affectivity and low levels of primitive affectivity contribute to burnout. Recommendations for the organisations and future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004

With the introduction of positive psychology the aim with organisational psychology shifted to finding the 'happy/productive' worker and focusing more on work wellness. Working as an engineer has generally been considered challenging, but tough demands on today's engineers can cause exhaustion, which is due to a combination of personal stressors, job and organisational stressors. However, recently the world of work has started to change drastically - which also holds true for the engineering profession. One of the focus areas of redress is the work-related well-being of engineers, and specifically burnout, stress and work engagement. This research focused on the total spectrum of wellness - from unwell-being (e.g. burnout and stress) to well-being (e.g. work engagement). The moderating effects of organisational commitment and dispositional optimism were investigated in order to establish a causal model for burnout and engagement. The objectives of this research were to standardise the MBI and the UWES for engineers, to determine the occupational stressors of engineers and to develop and test a causal models of work-related well-being of engineers. The research findings are set out as four separate articles, each consisting of a brief literature overview and an empirical study. A cross-sectional research design with a survey as technique of data collection was used to achieve the objectives of this research. The study population consisted of 369 engineers. A biographical questionnaire, the Maslach Burnout Inventory - General Survey WI-GS), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), the Job Characteristics Scale (JCS), the Organisational Stress Screening Tool (ASSET), the Health subscales of the ASSET, the Organisational Commitment subscale of the ASSET, and the Life Orientation Test-Revised (LOT-R) were used. Descriptive statistics, correlations, analysis of variance, factor analyses, multiple regression analysis and structural equation modelling were used to analyse the data. A three-factor model of burnout, comprising exhaustion, cynicism and professional efficacy was confirmed. The internal consistencies of the scales were acceptable. The results obtained from comparing burnout levels of various demographic groups showed that practically significant differences existed between burnout of engineers with different levels of job satisfaction, age, years of experience and self-rated performance. Compared to normative data, participants reported lower levels of physical ill-health and psychological outcomes of stress. The most important stressors identified were work-life balance, work demands and work overload. The results do not support previous findings that commitment has a protective effect against the negative consequences of workplace stress. The buffer hypothesis of organisational commitment is not supported by the data. Structural equation modelling confirmed a model of work engagement, consisting of Vigour, Dedication and Absorption. These three factors had acceptable internal consistencies. The results showed that the self-rated performance and job satisfaction of engineers varied depending on their levels of work engagement. No demographic differences regarding engagement levels could be found between the different age groups, engineering environments, job levels and years of experience. A good fit was found for a model in which exhaustion mediated the relationship between job demands and ill-health, and work engagement (vigour and dedication) mediated the relationship between job resources and organisational commitment. The results suggested that the effect of a lack of job resources on exhaustion and the effect of job resources on work engagement depends on the level of dispositional optimism. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

The aim of this study was to explore the validity of the Values in Action Inventory of Strengths (VIA-IS) in an African context. This 240-item self-report questionnaire that measures 24 character strengths (Peterson & Seligrnan, 2004), was developed in a western individualistic context, and it cannot be assumed to be valid in African contexts without prior scientific evaluation. The current study, a first step in the evaluation of its validity in an African context, focussed on psychometric properties such as reliability, mean scores and variance, criterion-related validity, confirmatory and exploratory factor analyses, as well as translatability. In a cross-sectional survey design an availability sample of African students (N=256) completed the original English version of the VIA-IS and other criterion-related measures of psychological well-being and health, during facilitated group sessions. The latter scales were the Affectometer 2 (Kammann & Flett, 1983), the Fortitude Questionnaire (Pretorius, 1998), the Sense of Coherence Scale (Antonovsky, 1987), the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, et al. 1985), and the General Health Questionnaire (Goldberg & Hillier, 1979). Translation of the VIA-IS into Setswana and back-translation were conducted and evaluated by a research evaluation committee. Results indicated that mean scores of the VIA-IS subscales are relatively aligned with those in a western context. Twenty of the twenty-four VIA-subscales showed satisfactory Cronbach alphas reliability indices above .70. The VIA-IS satisfies criterion-related validity as indicated by positive correlation with life satisfaction, positive affect, fortitude and sense of coherence, and negative correlation with negative affect and symptoms of ill-health. The VIA-IS was found to be translatable with preservation of original meaning, but in some instances technical terms had to be borrowed. Second order confirmatory and exploratory principal component factor analyses on the 24 strengths yielded three significant factors, and not six as theoretically expected, in this African group. The three emic virtue clusters are 1) Wisdom, knowledge and courage, 2) Horizontal and vertical relatedness and 3) Integrity in a group context: temperance and justice. This clustering of virtues reflects a socio-centric, collectivistic African cultural value system. It is concluded that the VIA-IS may have merit in an African context, but is not completely valid in its original form with its hypothesised six value clusters. With modifications and adaptations a more valid version may be developed for an African context. Studies on randomly selected, larger African samples are recommended. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Clinical Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2005.

There is a lacuna in the field of positive psychology as far as the conceptualisation of influences of environmental contexts on psychological well-being is concerned, and there is also a lack of credible empirical findings on the dynamics of processes involved. The aim of the current study was to test various models on the possible mediating role of subjective perceptions of health, personality factors and spirituality in the dynamics of context and psychological well-being. Psychological well-being was conceptualised and measured multi-dimensionally as defined from a general psychological well-being, hedonic, and eudaimonic perspective. Context was defined in terms of the historical stratification in South African society by socioeconomic differentials pertaining to race, socioeconomic indices and infrastructural resources. An availability sample of 5 14 participants from Potchefstroom (n=384) and Mafikeng (n=130) completed questionnaires on psychological well-being, subjective perceptions of health, personality factors and spirituality after informed consent was obtained. Psychological well-being was measured with the Affectometer 2 (Kammann & Flett, 1983), the Sense of Coherence Scale (Antonovsky, 1987) and Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Larsen and Griffin, 1985). General psychological well-being was defined and operationalised in terms of the degree of sense of coherence, satisfaction with life and affect balance; hedonic well-being in terms of the degree of satisfaction with life and affect balance, and eudaimonic well-being in terms of the degree of sense of coherence and satisfaction with life. Subjective perceptions of physical health was measure with the General Health Questionnaire of Goldberg and Hillier (1979); Agreeableness and Extraversion as personality factors with the NEO- Personality Inventory - Revised of Costa and McCrae (1992); and Spirituality with the Spiritual Well-being Scale of Paloutzian and Ellison's (1979). The findings indicate, firstly, that perceptions of physical health (article I), personality factors (article 2) and spirituality (article 3) mediate the relationship between contexts and psychological well-being. Secondly, that the hedonic model of psychological well-being (albeit variably conceptualised in article 1 and articles 2 and 3) overall, yielded the highest amounts of variance. Thirdly, the results also indicated differences among the two predominantly black and white samples in terms of the roles played by subjective perceptions of health, personality factors and spirituality in the relationship between contexts and psychological well-being. It is concluded that due consideration must be given to social context and the dynamics of interaction between social ecology and individual factors in order to make a meaningful contribution to the understanding and promotion of psychological well-being. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are indicated. / Thesis (Ph.D. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

During old age there are many challenges that the elderly have to meet. These challenges can include adapting to diminished bodily abilities, decreased intellectual vitality, the death of a spouse and the loss of friends, adapting to new roles and activities, a change in income, a change of housing conditions and retirement. Due to advanced technology and to more sophisticated medical services, life expectancy has changed significantly, which implies that generally speaking people could grow older and that they have to deal with life transitions and daily demands. Friendships enable people to cope better with life transitions and challenges. Very little research, however, is available on the friendship patterns of the elderly. A quantitative, single cross-sectional survey study was conducted where 200 elderly people in South Africa were interviewed by means of a semi-structured questionnaire. The purpose of the research was to investigate friendship patterns among the elderly, and to confirm whether or not people have fewer friendships as they grow older. Data has been statistically analysed by means of frequencies. Results indicate that as people age, they indeed have fewer friendships due to the death of friends, transport problems, illness and the fact that friends moved away. It was also found that although the number of friends becomes fewer, friendship is still regarded as an important aspect. Suggestions are made regarding the value of having different kinds of friendships, which will promote resilience and create more social resources to deal with challenging life transitions. / Thesis (M.A. (Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006.

Emotional intelligence is a growing area of behavioural research; it recently grabbed the attention of some of the major organisations worldwide. The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between wellness and emotional intelligence in order to develop a structural model of psychological well-being. The following constructs were looked at, Optimism, Sense of Coherence, Life Satisfaction, Emotional Intelligence are all seen as good indicators of Psychological well-being. A cross-sectional design was used for this study. The participants (N=324) were students within the field of economic science. The Schutte Emotional Intelligence Scale, the Life Orientation Test Revised, the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Orientation to Life scale were administered. Using a principal component analysis, a six-dimension factor structure for emotional intelligence among students emerged, explaining 45,24% of the variance. These factors were labelled positive affect, emotions-others, happy emotions, emotions-own, nonverbal emotions and emotional control. The most significant correlations found in this study was that Sense of Coherence is significantly positively related to Emotions Management and Life Satisfaction and significantly positively related to Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions, Positive Affect and Optimism. Sense of Coherence was negatively related to Pessimism. Emotions Management is significantly positively related to Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions, Positive Affect, Optimism and Life Satisfaction. Positive affect is significantly positively related to Optimism. Pessimism is significantly negatively related to Life Satisfaction. Optimism is significantly positively related to Life Satisfaction. After conducting a second factor analysis on the factors of the SEIS, LOT-R, SOC and SWLS, two factors were extracted, namely interpersonal and intrapersonal mastery. Using these factors, along with the results of the product-moment correlations, a psychological well-being model was designed and compiled. The results showed that Interpersonal mastery consisted of Positive Affect, Emotional Management, Sense of Coherence, Life Satisfaction and Optimism. Intrapersonal mastery consisted of Emotions-Others, Emotions-Own, Happy Emotions and Non-Verbal Emotions. It is evident from the above that the psychological well-being model consisted of intrapersonal mastery and environmental mastery. Recommendations for future research were made. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007

South Africa's business environment is changing dramatically. Companies are continuously placed under pressure to reform. Government introduced clear guidelines in the form of transformation strategies to assist companies in moving towards a more democratic, non-racial and fully representative organisational structure. The two major strategies are coined Black Economic Empowerment and Affirmative Action. The aim of the strategies is to empower and uplift the previously disadvantaged communities of the Apartheid era. These communities include black people; who consist of Africans, Coloureds and Indians; women and disabled individuals. However, these strategies are perceived with mixed emotions. A sense of negativity is evident within the attitudes of all race groups. This may give rise to a new problem in the workplace: pessimism. Pessimism is associated with undesirable characteristics such as external, unstable and specific explanations for bad things and has emotional links to depression. Pessimists view problems as long lasting and inescapable, and tend to blame all misfortunes on their own ineptness and incompetence. On the other hand, optimism is associated with characteristics such as positive mood and good morale, happiness, perseverance and effective problem solving, achievement and health and even a long life and freedom from trauma. It is characterised by internal, stable and global explanations for bad things. A cross-sectional design with an availability sample (N 68) of junior and middle management workers working in a multinational industry was used. Nonprobability purposive sampling was applied in the selection of the study population. The results indicated that males experience more dispositional pessimism than women. Black employees also experienced more dispositional pessimism and optimism than white employees, and employees who attended Affirmative Action induction programmes displayed higher levels of optimism than those who have not attended such programmes. If the tendency towards pessimism increases the result may have devastating effects on the organisation as a whole. It is possible that performance will decline and organisational targets will not be reached. To address these issues organisations may need to change their structural planning in order to utilise males more productively, and to enhance a sense of empowerment. Companies should formulate clear goals with regard to what they want to gain from Affirmative Action programmes. Programmes should also be constantly revised and continuing evaluations must be carried out in order to track the effect of the programmes on the workforce. Recommendations were made for future research. / Thesis (M.A. (Industrial Psychology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Researchers have struggled to define how to age well since the time of Roman philosopher Cicero in 44 BC, yet today it remains a mystery (Tate, Lah, & Cuddy, 2003). In the context of dealing with age-related declines that often accompany later life, it has recently been suggested that positive reinterpretation, a concept implicit to positive psychology, may be important (Ouwehand, de Ridder, & Bensing, 2007; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Positive reinterpretation has at times been referred to as “secondary control” in the psychological literature. In their seminal article of 1982, Rothbaum, Weisz, and Snyder theorized that there were multiple ways in which people could positively reinterpret outcomes and gain feelings of secondary control, including believing in the power of others and nature, as well as downgrading importance. These belief patterns become especially important in later life, when faced with age-related challenges. In the present study, secondary control beliefs were examined cross-sectionally in 2003 (n = 223) and prospectively in 2006 (n = 117) in a sample of older adults (M age = 85 years, 62% women) using a variety of outcome measures including severity of chronic conditions score, recent health, self-rated health, positive emotion, life satisfaction, and perceived stress. The unique contributions of this study are twofold. First, the findings suggest that some older adults may emphasize certain secondary control beliefs in combination. Second, the combined beliefs were found to relate cross-sectionally to measures of physical and psychological well-being. These exploratory findings have important implications in applied and theoretical contexts. In applied contexts, they may help to enhance physical and psychological well-being in the very old. In theoretical contexts, they extend contemporary thinking on secondary control.