Des études récentes indiquent que des précurseurs de la morale humaine pourraient exister chez les animaux non humains. Parmi ces précurseurs, la prosocialité (comportements produisant un bénéfice pour un receveur sans nécessairement induire de coût pour l’acteur) est considérée comme une composante fondamentale de tout système moral. Nous avons effectué des tests de prosocialité chez plusieurs espèces de mammifères et d’oiseaux, en tenant compte des facteurs d’identité des individus (tolérance, dominance, sexe) et de comportement du receveur (communication, réciprocité). Nos sujets se sont montrés plus prosociaux envers leurs subordonnés qu’envers leurs dominants, ce qui suggèrent que la prosocialité pourrait être utilisée comme un moyen de maintenir son rang. Nous avons observé des différences entre les sexes cohérentes avec le pattern de soins parentaux des espèces, appuyant l’idée selon laquelle la prosocialité aurait évolué dans un contexte de soins aux jeunes. La période de reproduction et le fait d’avoir ou d’avoir eu des petits entraînaient une augmentation de la prosocialité, surtout envers le partenaire de reproduction et ses petits, ce qui pourrait avoir pour but de mieux transmettre ses gènes. Nous avons trouvé des patterns de réciprocité directe chez nos sujets, devenant plus prosociaux lorsque le receveur s’était lui-même montré prosocial lors de la session précédente. Les communications émises par le receveur ont également influencé positivement ou négativement (selon leur nature) les choix du sujet. L’ensemble de nos résultats montrent qu’il est possible et souhaitable d’étudier la prosocialité en dehors des primates, nos sujets s’étant montrés capables de prendre en compte à la fois des facteurs d’identité du receveur et son comportement. / Recent studies indicate that precursors of human morality may exist in non human animals. Among these precursors, prosociality (behaviours that produce a benefit for a recipient without necessarily involving a cost for the actor) is considered a fundamental component of any moral system. We conducted prosociality tests in several species of mammals and birds, taking into account factors of individuals’ identity (tolerance, hierarchical ranks, sex) and of recipients behaviours (communication, reciprocity). Our subjects were more prosocial toward their subordinates than toward their dominants, suggesting that prosociality could be used as a way to maintain its own rank. We reported differences between sexes consistent with the parental care pattern of the species, supporting the idea that prosociality would have evolved with parental care. The reproductive period and (even more) having (or having had) young seemed to increase the subjects’ prosociality, especially towards their reproductive mate and their offspring, which could be interpreted as behaviours that ultimately spread their own genes. We found patterns of direct reciprocity, our subjects becoming more prosocial when the recipient was prosocial in the previous session. Communications from the recipient also influenced positively or negatively (depending on their nature) the subjects' choices. All of our results show that it is possible and desirable to study prosociality outside primates, our subjects having been able to take into account both the recipient's identity and its behaviour.

Les macaques sont-ils capables de prendre en compte le préjudice porté à autrui occasionné par leurs actes ? Si oui, quelles facultés leur permettent de l'appréhender et quelles variables influenceraient leurs décisions dans de tels contextes sociaux ? De la perception à la production de comportements sociaux, une multitude de processus mentaux complexes permettent aux macaques de vivre au sein d'une société dynamique, structurée et cohésive. Bien que la présence de comportements pro et antisociaux y ait déjà été décrite, leurs causes ultimes et proximales ne sont pas évidentes. Est-ce que l'empathie, définie ici comme la capacité à ressentir les émotions d'autrui, pourrait expliquer l'expression de comportements prosociaux ? Les réponses à de telles questions peuvent avoir des répercussions importantes pour les sciences, mais aussi pour la philosophie et l'éthique. L'originalité et la pertinence de notre démarche expérimentale résident dans la mesure objective des comportements sociaux à l'aide de dispositifs et protocoles novateurs conçus et validés au cours de cette thèse. Nous avons en effet entrepris de reproduire un contexte social dans un environnement contrôlé de laboratoire. Ainsi, en plaçant deux animaux face à face, nous avons mis au point un protocole de décision sociale unique permettant à un macaque acteur de choisir de délivrer soit un stimulus aversif (un jet d'air comprimé sur le visage) soit un stimulus appétitif (une goutte de jus de fruit) à son partenaire, à un espace vide ou à lui-même. Les choix étant organisés en paires, l'acteur devait sélectionner soit l'option prosociale, soit l'option antisociale ou, pour des décisions contrôles non-sociales, soit l'option rationnelle, soit l'option irrationnelle. Des analyses appropriées des mesures oculométriques (niveau de regard mutuel et fréquence de clignement des yeux) nous ont permis d'établir des relations entre réponses émotionnelles et tendances pro- (ou anti-) social et de révéler des processus homologues à ceux impliqués dans l'empathie émotionnelle humaine, car dépendants des expériences passées et des relations entretenues avec le partenaire / Do macaques are able to take into account others' welfare during social decisions-making ? If so, what capacities allow them to apprehend it and which variables would influence their decisions in such social contexts ? From perception to the production of social behavior, a multitude of complex mental processes allow macaques to live in a dynamic society, structured and cohesive. Although the presence of pro-and antisocial behavior had already been described, their ultimate and proximate causes are not known. Does empathy, defined here as the ability to feel the emotions of others, could explain the expression of pro-social behavior? The answers to such questions might have important implications for science, but also in philosophy and ethics. The originality and relevance of our experimental approach lies in the objective measurement of social behavior using innovative devices and protocols developed and validated during this thesis. Indeed, we aimed to reproduce a social context in a controlled laboratory environment. Thus, by placing two animals face to face, we have developed a unique protocol for social decision allowing a macaque to delivered either an aversive stimulus (an air puff on the face), an appetitive stimulus (drop of fruit juice) to its partner, to an empty space or to itself. The choices are organized in pairs, the actor had to select either the prosocial option or antisocial option or, for non-social controls decision the rational or irrational option. Appropriate analyzes of eye tracking measures (level of mutual gaze and blink frequency) allowed us to establish relationships between emotional responses and pro (or anti) social trends. It revealed processes dependent on past experiences and relationships with the partner, thus homologous to those involved in human emotional empathy

Humans are extraordinary prosocial beings. No other Great Ape species invests a comparable amount of time and resources into building, maintaining, and repairing social relationships. The degree to which small-scale communities and large-scale societies embrace the human capacity for prosociality and capitalise on human-unique forms of cooperation is variable. The cross-cultural constant, however, is that each individual child undergoes a critical period of prosocial development in the first four years of life. During this period children’s emotions undergo a culture-specific transformation through children’s interactions with adults, siblings, and same-age peers. Studying how emotions shape young children’s social interactions, how they allow children to maintain and repair social relationships, is the developmental psychologist’s study of the psychological origins of human prosociality. This thesis is about studying examples of such so-called prosocial emotions. The main question of the current thesis is: How do emotions regulate children’s social inter- actions and relationships in early ontogeny? Addressing this question requires the assessment of both the internal mechanisms (attention and physiological arousal) as well as the expression (in behaviour or body language) of emotions in young children’s social interactions. At first, I provide a theoretical basis for studying the regulatory function of prosocial emotions in the first four years of children’s development. I suggest that children’s developing prosociality progresses through two distinct phases, one which shapes their attention and physiological arousal to others’ needs in the first two years of life, and subsequently a second phase during which children’s prosocial behaviour emerges and is increasingly regulated by emotions. In contrast to previous work, such a study of emotions as underlying early prosocial development requires broadening the suite of methods through which emotions are objectively measurable and interpretable. The first research aim was to study the development of children’s attention and arousal in response to others’ needs. We found that prosocial attention is a stable phenomenon from toddlerhood through school-age. In both a western and non-western culture, children anticipated how others are best helped. In a clinical comparison study, we found that this anticipatory response was blunted in children with an autism spectrum diagnosis. Young children’s prosocial orientation was not limited to helping contexts but encompassed other domains. Toddlers understood others’ desires and anticipated how those were best met. We further found that two-year toddlers were attentive to same-age peers’ needs and helped a same-age peer in sim- ilar ways and to a similar degree as has been previously reported in studies with child-adult interactions. We further found that toddlers’ attention to others’ needs was not contingent on explicit requests for help. Rather toddlers helped an adult even if helping was anonymous suggesting that toddlers did not help to interact with a competent adult partner. Finally, in a comparative study, we found chimpanzees’ underlying motivation to provide help to be different from that previously documented in young children. Chimpanzees were fastest to complete an action if this resulted in a conspecific’s need being fulfilled but, in contrast to young children, chimpanzees were motivated to carry out the behaviour themselves (which was not the case in non-helping control scenarios). Together, this indicates that a young chil- dren’s prosocial orientation develops during and persists beyond the first two years of life, thus laying the foundation for children’s prosocial behaviour. The second research aim was to study how children’s attention to others’ needs relates to their actual prosocial behaviour. In a first, comparative, study we found that young children regulated their prosocial behaviour more than chimpanzees. Both 3-year-old children and chimpanzees helped others, but children were more strongly motivated to help paternalistically by correcting dysfunctional requests for help that did not align with the requester’s actual need. The implication of these findings is that chimpanzees’ helping is more motivated by concerns to ’get credit’ and comply with others’ request for help whereas children’s helping is based on a, sometimes even paternalistic, concern to see others being helped. In a separate series of studies we developed experimental paradigms that allowed us to mea- sure the underlying emotions through changes in both internal arousal as well as overt body expressions. We found that changes in children’s physiological arousal were predictive of their subsequent helping behaviour. We further studied the function of guilt and gratitude in regulating two- and three-year-olds’ prosocial behaviour. Children’s intrinsic motivation to help an adult changed when they had accidentally caused the adult harm (guilt) or when the adult had previously helped them (gratitude). Specifically, guilt- and gratitude-provoking situations motivated young children to actively provide help. In contrast, and replicating previous work, under conditions without invoked guilt or gratitude, children’s motivation was to see that individual being helped (irrespective of whether they themselves or another adult provided the help). In a separate study we investigated children’s positive emotions, expressed in elevated upper-body posture, resulting from their successful helping behaviour. Children at the age of two years showed a similarly elevated body posture after completing a goal for themselves and after completing an adult’s goal whereas no such elevation was observed when children’s actions did not benefit anyone. Together these findings suggest that emotions invoked in their interactions with others in turn influence children’s motivation to interact, thus serving a regulatory function to repair (guilt) and maintain (gratitude) children’s social relationships. This successful navigation of the social world may contribute to children’s own emotional well-being. In sum, the current thesis explored the developmental origins of prosociality focusing on prosocial emotions that allow already young children to build and maintain functional relationships with adults and peers. The first four years of life give rise to prosocial emotions that critically shape children’s social interactions toward cooperative ends. Together, the re- search presented here adds to our knowledge of the deep ontogenetic roots of human-unique prosociality.:1 Executive summary 1 2 Introduction and background 3 2.1 Children’s prosocial attention and interactions.................... 6 2.2 The regulatory social function of children’s emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 2.2.1 Children’s emotional response to seeing others needing help . . . . . . . 8 2.2.2 Children’s emotional response to seeing others being helped . . . . . . . 9 3 Theoretical framework and research programs 11 3.1 Revealing the foundation of human prosociality (Theoretical paper 1) . . . . . 11 3.1.1 Precursors and mechanisms........................... 12 3.1.2 Social groups & interaction partners...................... 13 3.1.3 The self in social relationships ......................... 13 3.1.4 The long reach of early development ..................... 14 3.2 ResearchPrograms .................................... 15 3.2.1 Prosocial attention and interactions ...................... 16 3.2.2 The regulatory social function of emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 4 Empirical studies 21 4.1 The development of prosocial attention across two cultures (Study 1) . . . . . . 21 4.1.1 Abstract ...................................... 21 4.1.2 Introduction.................................... 21 4.1.3 Materials and methods.............................. 24 4.1.4 DataAnalysis................................... 26 4.1.5 Results....................................... 28 4.1.6 Discussion..................................... 31 4.2 Prosocial attention in children with an autism spectrum diagnosis (Study 2) . . 35 4.2.1 Abstract ...................................... 35 4.2.2 Introduction.................................... 35 4.2.3 Methods...................................... 38 4.2.4 Data analysis ................................... 40 4.2.5 Results....................................... 44 4.2.6 Discussion..................................... 46 4.3 Desire understanding in 2-year-old children: An eye-tracking study (Study 3) . 50 4.3.1 Abstract ...................................... 50 4.3.2 Introduction.................................... 50 4.3.3 Methods...................................... 53 4.3.4 Results....................................... 57 4.3.5 Discussion..................................... 61 4.4 Toddlers help anonymously (Study4)......................... 65 4.4.1 Abstract ...................................... 65 4.4.2 Introduction.................................... 65 4.4.3 Study1....................................... 66 4.4.4 Study1: Methods................................. 66 4.4.5 Study1: Results.................................. 70 4.4.6 Study1: Discussion................................ 70 4.4.7 Study2....................................... 72 4.4.8 Study2: Method ................................. 72 4.4.9 Study2: Results.................................. 74 4.4.10 General discussion ................................ 75 4.5 Toddlers help a peer (Study5) ............................. 79 4.5.1 Abstract ...................................... 79 4.5.2 Introduction.................................... 79 4.5.3 Method....................................... 81 4.5.4 Results....................................... 86 4.5.5 Discussion..................................... 89 4.6 Chimpanzees are motivated to help others - and to get credit (Study 6) . . . . . 93 4.6.1 Abstract ...................................... 93 4.6.2 Introduction.................................... 93 4.6.3 Study1....................................... 95 4.6.4 Results.......................................100 4.6.5 Study2.......................................102 4.6.6 Results.......................................103 4.6.7 General discussion ................................104 4.7 Chimpanzees comply with requests; Children fulfil others’ needs (Study 7) . . . 106 4.7.1 Abstract ......................................106 4.7.2 Introduction....................................106 4.7.3 General method..................................109 4.7.4 Study1.......................................111 4.7.5 Results.......................................115 4.7.6 Study2.......................................116 4.7.7 Results.......................................119 4.7.8 General discussion ................................119 4.8 Young children’s physiological arousal and their motivation to help (Study 8) . 123 4.8.1 Abstract ......................................123 4.8.2 Introduction....................................123 4.8.3 Methods......................................126 4.8.4 Data analysis ...................................128 4.8.5 Results.......................................130 4.8.6 Discussion.....................................131 4.9 Children’s intrinsic motivation to reconcile after accidental harm (Study 9) . . . 135 4.9.1 Abstract ......................................135 4.9.2 Introduction....................................135 4.9.3 General method..................................137 4.9.4 Study1.......................................142 4.9.5 Study1: Results and discussion ........................145 4.9.6 Study2.......................................146 4.9.7 Study2: Results..................................148 4.9.8 General discussion ................................149 4.10 Toddlers’ intrinsic motivation to return help to their benefactor (Study 10) . . . 152 4.10.1 Abstract ......................................152 4.10.2 Introduction....................................152 4.10.3 Study1:Methods.................................155 4.10.4 Study1:Results..................................161 4.10.5 Study1:Discussion................................163 4.10.6 Study2:Methods.................................164 4.10.7 General discussion ................................167 4.10.8 Conclusion.....................................170 4.11 The fulfillment of others’ needs elevates children’s body posture (Study 11) . . . 171 4.11.1 Abstract ......................................171 4.11.2 Introduction....................................171 4.11.3 Validation study .................................173 4.11.4 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.11.5 Study 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 4.11.6 Study1:Method .................................176 4.11.7 Study1:Results..................................181 4.11.8 Study1:Discussion................................183 4.11.9 Study 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 4.11.10 Study2:Method .................................185 4.11.11 Study 2: Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188 4.11.12 General discussion ................................189 5 Integrative discussion and theoretical perspectives 193 5.1 Children’s prosocial attention and interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .194 5.1.1 Summary & conclusions.............................194 5.1.2 Future directions .................................195 5.2 Prosocial arousal in children (Theoretical paper 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .200 5.2.1 Abstract ......................................200 5.2.2 Introduction....................................200 5.2.3 The phenomenon and the debate........................201 5.2.4 Measuring prosocial arousal ..........................202 5.2.5 Children’s prosocial arousal and intrinsic motivation to help . . . . . . . 204 5.2.6 Looking ahead ..................................205 5.2.7 Conclusion.....................................207 5.3 The regulatory social function of children’s emotions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .207 5.3.1 Summary & conclusions.............................207 5.3.2 Future directions .................................208 5.4 The development of prosocial emotions (Theoretical paper 3) . . . . . . . . . . 211 5.4.1 Abstract ......................................211 5.4.2 Introduction....................................211 5.4.3 The prosocial functions of emotions......................212 5.4.4 General discussion and future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .220 6 Bibliography 227 7 Declaration of originality 255 8 Contribution statement 257

Humans interact permanently. These interactions are transient and vary across situations. One characteristic of interactions is their social interdependence—the relationship between individuals’ goals. Social interdependence can take different forms: cooperative, competitive, or solitary. This dissertation investigated the influence of these forms of social interdependence on children’s sharing and social inclusion. Past research suggests that cooperative interdependence promotes and competitive interdependence lowers the willingness to act prosocially as compared to solitary contexts. These effects occur within and after respective interactions. Further, previous studies indicate that cooperation and competition affect prosociality toward third-parties who were not part of the interaction. However, many of these studies have low experimental rigor since the comparability between the experimental conditions is relatively low. For example, researchers compared cooperative games that cannot be lost with competitive games in which one party necessarily loses. This and other substantial differences between the experimental conditions do not allow for robust conclusions about the effects of cooperation and competition since alternative explanations might elicit these (e.g., fear of losing). Also, past research did not consider important variables, such as success or failure during the cooperation or competition, as predictors for children’s prosociality. Finally, most studies investigated children’s sharing behavior and neglected other prosocial behaviors, such as social inclusion. Thus, we conducted three studies with high internal validity (i.e., high comparability between conditions) to examine the effect of cooperation and competition on preschoolers’ sharing and social inclusion while considering children’s success and engagement in these interactions as potential predictors. In all studies, participants were from Leipzig and had mixed socio-economic backgrounds. In Study 1, dyads of 4- to 5-year-old children played a coordinative game in either a cooperative, competitive, or solitary context. Hereafter, we assessed three prosocial measures: sharing, social inclusion, and prosocial acts in free play. Children shared an endowment of stickers with a third-party peer. We measured children’s social inclusion behavior in a newly developed paradigm. In this social inclusion task, children play a ball-tossing game with a puppet while a second puppet approaches the interaction asking to join the game. We observed whether and how often children included the approaching puppet. Finally, dyads engaged in a free play, in which prosocial acts have been coded. Results revealed that children shared more stickers after playing in a cooperative as compared to a competitive context. The contexts of the game did not influence children’s social inclusion or prosocial acts in free play. In the social inclusion paradigm, children were highly inclusive, which raises the question of whether a ceiling effect has diminished the potential effect of cooperation and competition. In Study 2, we tested 3- to 6-year-olds’ social inclusion behavior with a modified version of Study 1’s task. The modified version aimed to overcome the detected ceiling effect. Study 2 investigated how social inclusion behavior develops throughout preschool age and how different inter-group scenarios influence this behavior. We found children’s social inclusion to increase from age 3 to 6. Children’s willingness to include an approaching puppet was lower when this puppet was an out-group member joining an in-group interaction as compared to a control condition without groups. Study 3 conceptually replicated Study 1’s procedure in an intergroup context. Similar to Study 1, dyads of 4- to 6-year-olds played a game in a cooperative, competitive, or solitary context. Here, the game was not coordinative, and we controlled wins and losses in the game to increase internal validity and to isolate the effect of mere goal relations as the cause for Study 1’s effect. After playing the game, children shared stickers with a third-party in-group and out-group member. Also, we assessed children’s social inclusion behavior in an intergroup context with Study 2’s modified version of the task. The cooperative, competitive, and solitary context of the game did not influence children’s sharing and social inclusion. In a merged analysis and a general discussion, the results of all three studies are combined and interpreted. In total, our results suggest that cooperative and competitive relations of goals only influence children’s prosocial behavior toward third-parties if interactions are highly coordinated.:1. General Introduction 2. Study 1: Cooperative Games and Preschoolers’ Prosociality 3. Study 2: Social Inclusion in Preschooler 4. Study 3: Cooperation, Competition, and In-Group Bias in Preschoolers 5. Merged Analyses 6. General Discussion References Curriculum Vitae Scientific Publications and Conference Contributions Declaration of Authorship Contributions of Authors

Gratitude and indebtedness facilitate cooperative relationships and altruism. Although most of the world endorses some belief in God, gratitude and indebtedness to God have not received adequate empirical attention. The "Gratitude to God" research initiative was created to address this gap, of which the current project is an appendage. This project encapsulates a multiphase research proposal, including three parts; a pilot study and two experimental studies. The purpose of the pilot study (N = 475) was to create and test experimental manipulations for the two experimental studies. Experiment 1 (N = 659; highly religious emerging adult sample) was a 3x2 experimental design with six conditions; 1) gratitude-only to humans, 2) indebtedness-only to humans, 3) gratitude and indebtedness to humans, 4) gratitude-only to God, 5) indebtedness-only to God, and 6) gratitude and indebtedness to God. Experiment 2 (N = 1081; nationally representative sample) was a replication of Experiment 1. Multiple and multivariate regression analyses and MANOVAs provided evidence that conditions 3 & 6 and state responses of gratitude and transcendent indebtedness led to more prosocial giving, more positive affect, and increased relationship proximity in response to receiving a benefit from either God or humans. Gratitude with low levels of indebtedness or indebtedness with low levels of gratitude were associated with worse outcomes. Two types of indebtedness were found, transcendent indebtedness (agentic) and transactional indebtedness (obligated). More positive outcomes were associated with transcendent indebtedness. Further, positive affect and relationship proximity was moderated by secure attachment to God when God was the benefactor.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第20660号 / 理博第4325号 / 新制||理||1621(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 友永 雅己, 准教授 足立 幾磨, 准教授 鈴木 樹理 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DGAM

The aim of this dissertation was to gain a better understanding of the development of the motivations underlying early prosociality through studying the mechanisms underlying sociality and prosociality. This was done in three studies. Study 1 focused on the development and interrelation of social and prosocial attention in 10-, 14-, and 24-month-old children. In study 2 children’s levels of positive affect after engaging in active prosocial behaviour (helping) and in a social interaction were examined. Study 3 combined data from Study 1 and 2 to investigate the interrelation between the mechanisms underlying (pro)social attention and the positive emotions following (pro)social behaviour in 14- and 24-month-old children.

Le ricerche esistenti in letteratura negli ultimi quarant’anni si sono occupate dello studio sistematico dello sviluppo dell’empatia e della prosocialità nei bambini e adolescenti, da diverse prospettive. In questo ambito di studi un settore ancora poco esplorato è quello dello studio delle relazioni esistenti tra le risposte prosociali e le componenti della resilienza, che intervengono nel comportamento di aiuto e sostegno agli altri. Il presente lavoro di tesi esplora in che modo vi sia una relazione tra i costrutti dell’empatia, prosocialità e resilienza, sia nei fanciulli che negli adulti. Il primo studio ha come campione 203 bambini della scuola primaria (8-11 anni) e indaga la predisposizione alla sintonizzazione empatica, alla condivisione, collaborazione e al comportamento resiliente di gruppo, tramite un questionario che utilizza scale standardizzate sia a livello internazionale che nazionale. Il secondo studio ha come obiettivo la comprensione della predisposizione empatica dei genitori dei bambini considerati e la loro capacità di perspective-taking rispetto alla resilienza dei figli. Inoltre, si valuta la relazione esistente tra il comportamento genitoriale e l’atteggiamento dei bambini, per verificarne il grado di imitazione vissuto. / In the last forty years researches on literature dealt with systematic study of development of empathy and prosocial behaviors in children and adolescence, which were examined from different perspectives. In this context an unexplored sector is the study of existing connection between prosocial answers and resilience components which occur in helping behavior and support of the others. The present work explore the modalities of the connection among constructs of empathy, prosociality and resilience, both in childhood and in adults. 203 children of primary school (8-11years old) are the samples of the first study and the research investigates predisposition of emphatic feeling, of sharing, and of resilient behaviors of the group. It uses a questionnaire of standardize scales both an international and national level. The main goal of the second study is the comprehension of empathic predisposition of children’s relatives of the sample and their perspective-taking in respect to children’s resilience. In addition, it evaluates the relation between relatives behavior and children attitude, in order to verify the type of experienced imitation.

Inspired by recent work on value-based messaging in migration-relatedcampaigning to elicit sympathy, this project explores theoretical rationale foremploying values in the field of communication for social change (C4SC),understood in its broad sense as aspiring to engender prosocial behaviour. The project is framed by the main question of how values, emotions and(prosocial) action relate to one another. Historic and more recent sociologytheories related to values, emotions and action such as the Jamesian Theory of Action, Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, Schwartz’s Refined Theory ofValues, Caprara et al’s Prosociality, inform my theoretical hypothesis that for anindividual responding to a stimulus values are relatively stable frames whichguide goal setting, whilst emotions perform a cognitive function of evaluation,combined they create the impetus for (prosocial) action, though do notguarantee the impetus will be acted upon. Whether evidence that this hypothesis is enacted by traditional C4SC actors is the second endeavour of this project, for which a 42-text comparative analysisis performed to observe whether and how calls to action (CTA), values and emotions are present in existing prosocial campaigning. The texts are sourced from Instagram, the growing visual-first social media platform that offerscomparable units and serves as symbolic representation of the actors’communication. The main finding of this analysis is that values and emotions are present acrossthe range of themes and content producers. Whilst values associated withprosocial behaviour feature strongly across the board, values are present in a multitude of ways, sometimes in provocative or counter-intuitive ways within anindividual text. This diversity is positive for the potential of individual texts to engage a wider audience by reflecting the complexity of each person’s ownvalue profile. Being more subjective, the types of emotions elicited is less clear than valuesspoken to/challenged. Nonetheless the ways emotions are employed provideample food for thought for researchers and practitioners, and there is credible proof that each text will evoke some form of emotional engagement, whichanswers to the criteria in the hypothesis for emotion-facilitated evaluation. The findings on CTAs are informative, particularly when compared between thedifferent C4SC actors studied; there is a tendency for global level campaigningto be more general and national and local level more specific, whilst governmental level demonstrates limited CTAs for social change, focusing oncelebration of progress instead. The findings on the three units of interest in this project demonstrate fertileground for further research into the interplay between values, emotions andaction, as well as demonstrating to practitioners that understanding the value profile of target audiences is a worthwhile step in campaign design, and toconsider how a campaign might provoke certain emotional responses leadingeither to heightened engagement or risking emotional dissonance.  The project contributes to C4SC by testing a methodology for decoding CTAs,values and emotions, providing a baseline on how these units are used incurrent campaigning, and proposing various avenues of follow-up research,including connecting this work to intent and impact i.e. the extent to which thecampaigns motivated prosocial action. It builds on the work that inspired me bydefining why an emotional response is useful in prosocial campaigning and howthis relates to values and action.

In this work we have been researching how Ethic Education influences the pupils behaviour and the social climate in the classroom. For this research we have used a mixed quantitative and a qualitative methodology. In the quantitative part we have realized our research through the natural experiment with one observed independent variable which applicated the programme of Ethic Education for basic school pupils and secondary school students. We have observed these dependant variables of pupils behaviour: the amount of the prosocial behavior, the amount of anxiety and the amount of the behavioural problems. In a group we have observed: the quality of the social climate and the amount of the trust. In the qualitative part we have tried to examine how pupils and teachers perceive Ethic Education and what principles they use for it. We have used these methods of collecting information: a nomination technigue, a questionary About Your Fellowstudents, a questionary About Your Emotions, a questionary CES, a questionary SDQ. In the qualitative part we have used a questionary with this open question. We think that we can make a conclusion about this research that in the quantitative part the hypothese proved that Ethic Education reduces the amount of the anxiety and the other emocional aspects within the pupils...