Macroscopic “carbonaceous” fossils such as Grypania, Katnia, Chuaria, and Tawuia play a critical role in our understanding of biological evolution in the Precambrian and their environmental implications. Unfortunately, understanding of these fossils remains limited by their relative simplicity of form, mode of preservation, and broad taphonomic variability. As a result, debate continues as to even the fundamental taxonomic affinity of the organisms. Megascopic coiled forms (i.e. Grypania and Katnia), for instance, have been interpreted as trace fossils, multicellular algae, prokaryotic filaments, macroscopic bacteria, cyanobacteria, or a transitional form from macroscopic to megascopic bacterial life. Similarly, Chuaria and Tawuia have been interpreted as compressed prokaryotic colonies, algae or algal reproductive stages, and multicellular plant material. Accessibility of new material and increasingly sophisticated means of analysis warrant a new look at these ancient fossils. Understanding the biological affinity of Grypania, in particular, is critical because current opinion is split as to whether these megascopic structures are more likely represent either multicellular bacteria or multicellular algae. Confirmation of either a bacterial or algal affinity would strongly influence fundamental understanding of biospheric evolution, particularly in terms of ocean oxygenation and the availability of bioessential trace metals. Although estimates for the degree of oxygenation required for a Grypania-like multicellular algae are only about 10 % present atmospheric levels (PAL), this estimate is still substantially higher than estimates based on geochemical data suggesting that oxygen levels may not have reached 10% PAL until the latter Neoproterozoic. It has been hypothesized that protracted oxygen of the Proterozoic biosphere may have played a critical role in the availability of redox-sensitive nutrients necessary for bacterial nitrogen fixation and the limiting of eukaryotic evolution. Within this context, our understanding of the taxonomic affinity of Grypania may profoundly affect our understanding of Earth’s biospheric evolution. This thesis provides morphological and geochemical analyses of Grypania spiralis from more than 100 newly collected specimens from the Belt Supergroup for comparison to previously collected specimens from all other known Grypania-bearing localities. Data is used to explore questions regarding the morphology, structural complexity, mode of preservation, and chemistry of fossil material, and to hypothesize on the taxonomic affinity of Grypania spiralis and its implications for biospheric evolution.

Bibliography: p.127-141. / xv, 210 p. : ill. (some col.), maps (some col.) ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geology, 2001?

Master of Science / Department of Geology / Brice LaCroix / Abdelmoneam Raef / South-central Kansas has experienced an increase in seismic activity within the Proterozoic basement over the past 10 years. In 2009, Oklahoma seismic stations recorded 50 earthquakes statewide, a 200% increase from 2008. Oklahoma Geological Survey (OGS) seismograph stations recorded 1,028 in 2010, an increase of over 2000% from 2009. Between 2000-2012, Kansas experienced only 12 earthquakes statewide. Beginning in September 2013, clusters of seismic events in south-central Kansas began to increase. In 2015 alone, Kansas seismograph stations recorded 448 earthquakes, of which 166 resulted in a magnitude 2.0 or greater. Since 2013, United States Geological Survey (USGS) seismograph stations have recorded over 12,000 earthquakes within Kansas and Oklahoma. Pore fluid pressure increases associated with recent high-rate wastewater injection into the dolomitic Arbuckle disposal zone are hypothesized as cause of reactivation of the faulted study region’s Proterozoic basement. Although the magnitude of fluid-pressure change required for reactivation of these faults is likely low given failure equilibrium conditions in the midcontinent, heterogeneities (i.e. permeability, porosity, fluid pressure) in the basement could allow for a range of fluid pressure changes associated with injection. This research aims to quantify the fluid pressure changes responsible for fault reactivation of the Proterozoic basement. To address this issue, we use 97 earthquake focal mechanisms and over 12,000 seismic events, from the USGS catalog, within an area encompassing ~ 4,000 km². Focal mechanism data was utilized to determine the regional stress field present within the study region. Nodal plane data extracted from the focal mechanisms was crucial to identifying lineaments within the underlying basement complex. A 3D seismic dataset covering the Wellington and Anson Bates Fields in north central Sumner County, Kansas was utilized for enhanced structural delineation of an interpreted faultnetwork affecting the Mississippian and Arbuckle Groups, to investigate whether it impacts the underlying granitic basement and its complex network of potentially interconnected fault planes. Smoothed similarity and spectral whitening analyses were applied to the dataset to improve depth of investigation and uncover fault lineaments masked by seismic attenuation due to increasing depth. An interpreted network of fault planes at depths of 3.5 km was uncovered beneath Wellington Field. The lineaments are well aligned with known structural features present within the Proterozoic basement, the Central Kansas Uplift and the Nemaha Ridge-Humboldt fault zone.

Os sistemas eólicos foram abundantes e muito comuns no início da Era Proterozoica Era, depois de 2.2 Ga. No entanto, a maioria das sucessões eólicas dessa idade são intensamente deformadas e fragmentadas, o que implica que até o momento, poucas tentativas foram feitas para aplicar uma abordagem de estratigrafia de sequências, para determinar os mecanismos de construção, acumulação e preservação das sequências eólicas, da mesma forma, não existem trabalhos realizados até o presente momento que utilizem os registros de acumulação eólica e reconstruções paleogeográficas para modelar a circulação atmosférica do Pré- Cambriano. A Formação Mangabeira é uma sucessão eólica de idade Mesoproterozóica bem preservada no Cráton do São Francisco, nordeste do Brasil. Duas unidades principais foram identificadas com base na arquitetura deposicional e na análise dos paleoventos. A unidade inferior da Formação Mangabeira (~ 500 m de espessura) compreende depósitos eólicos de duna, interdunas, lençóis de areia eólicos, assim como depósitos fluviais. Estes depósitos são organizados em ciclos sedimentares que se sucedem verticalmente, cada ciclo com 6 a 20 m de espessura, caracterizados por lençóis de areia eólicos e depósitos fluviais que são substituídos por dunas eólicas e depósitos interdunas indicando uma tendência de ressecamento para o topo. Os dados de paleoventos indicam um transporte atual dominantemente à norte. Estes ciclos surgem em resposta a oscilações climáticas de um clima relativamente úmido para condições climáticas áridas possivelmente relacionadas com forças orbitais. O limite entre a Unidade Inferior e a Unidade Superior sobrejacente é marcado por uma mudança na arquitetura deposicional e uma mudança brusca no padrão de paleoventos. A Unidade Superior (200 m de espessura) é caracterizada por sucessivos sets de estratos cruzados simples, cada set com ~ 3 a 10 m de espessura, que indicam a migração e acumulação de grandes dunas eólicas sem regiões de interdunas, e que se acumulou como um sistema eólico seco. Os dados de paleoventos indicam transporte atual predominantemente ao sul. Esta sucessão se acumulou durante um episódio de longa duração de hiperaridez. Localmente, a Unidade Superior inclui depósitos fluviais menores que registram um evento úmido de curta duração, ou uma inundação rara por sistemas fluviais provenientes das margens da bacia. A combinação dos dados de paleoventos com mapas paleogeográficos demonstra uma boa correlação entre a circulação atmosférica e distribuição das massas de terras. Entre 1,6-1,54 Ga o Cráton São Francisco estava localizado entre as latitudes médias e o equador. Os registros do regime de vento a partir dos estratos cruzados da Unidade Inferior são consistentes com as posições paleogeográficas do Cráton do São Francisco entre 25º a 35º S, prevalecendo um padrão de vento zonal. Entre 1,54-1,5 Ga a grande massa de terra (cratons do São-Francisco, Congo e Sibéria) derivou mais ao norte atingindo paleolatitudes entre 30º S e 30ºN. Nessa altura, o Cráton do São Francisco estava posicionado na zona equatorial. Esta paleogeografia é consistente com os paleoventos registrados na Unidade Superior, dominando um padrão de vento de monções. / Aeolian systems were abundant and widespread in the early Proterozoic Era, after 2.2 Ga. However, the majority of aeolian successions of such great age are intensely deformed and are preserved only in a fragmentary state meaning that, hitherto, few attempts have been made to apply a sequence stratigraphic approach to determine mechanisms of aeolian construction, accumulation and preservation in such systems, as the same way, no attempts to use the records of aeolian accumulation and palaeogeographic reconstructions of the land mass distribution to model Precambrian atmospheric circulation have been undertaken so far. The Mangabeira Formation is a well preserved Mesoproterozoic erg succession covering part of the São Francisco Craton, northeastern Brazil. Two main units are identified based on stratigraphic architecture and analysis of regional palaeo-sand transport directions. The lower unit of the Mangabeira Formation (~500 m thick) comprises aeolian deposits of dune, interdune, and sand-sheet origin, as well as some of water-lain origin. These deposits are organized into vertically stacked depositional cycles, each 6 to 20 m thick and characterized by aeolian sandsheet and water-lain deposits succeeded by aeolian dune and interdune deposits indicative of a drying-upward trend. Palaeocurrent data indicate aeolian sand transport dominantly to the presentday north. These cycles likely arose in response to climatic oscillations from relatively humid to arid conditions, possibly related to orbital forcing. The boundary between this lower unit and an overlying upper unit is an unconformity of regional extent marked by a change in the depositional architecture and an abrupt shift in palaeocurrent pattern. The Upper Unit (200 m thick) is characterized by stacked sets of simple cross strata, each ~3 to 10 m thick, which are indicative of the migration and accumulation of large aeolian dunes that lacked interdune flats of appreciable size, and which accumulated as a dry aeolian system. Palaeocurrent data indicates aeolian sand transport dominantly to the present-day south. This succession is interpreted to have accumulated during a long-lived episode of hyper-aridity. Locally, the upper unit includes minor fluvial deposits that may record a short-lived event of heightened humidity, or a rare flood event by fluvial systems sourced from the basin margin. The combination of the palaeowinds data with 1.6 - 1.5 Ga palaeogeographic maps demonstrate a good correlation between atmospheric circulation and land mass distribution. At 1.6 to 1.54 Ga São Francisco Craton has been located between mid-latitudes and equatorial zone. The wind regime records from the cross-strata of the Lower Unit are consistent with the palaeogeographic positions of São Francisco between 25º to 35º S, prevail a zonal wind pattern. At 1.54 to 1.5 Ga the large land mass (São-Francisco-Congo and Siberian cratons) drifted farther north reaching palaeolatitudes between 30º S and 30ºN. At that time the São Francisco Craton has been located in the equatorial zone. This palaeogeography is consistent with the northwestern palaeowinds directions recorded in the Upper Unit which dominates a monsoonal wind pattern.

Os sistemas eólicos foram abundantes e muito comuns no início da Era Proterozoica Era, depois de 2.2 Ga. No entanto, a maioria das sucessões eólicas dessa idade são intensamente deformadas e fragmentadas, o que implica que até o momento, poucas tentativas foram feitas para aplicar uma abordagem de estratigrafia de sequências, para determinar os mecanismos de construção, acumulação e preservação das sequências eólicas, da mesma forma, não existem trabalhos realizados até o presente momento que utilizem os registros de acumulação eólica e reconstruções paleogeográficas para modelar a circulação atmosférica do Pré- Cambriano. A Formação Mangabeira é uma sucessão eólica de idade Mesoproterozóica bem preservada no Cráton do São Francisco, nordeste do Brasil. Duas unidades principais foram identificadas com base na arquitetura deposicional e na análise dos paleoventos. A unidade inferior da Formação Mangabeira (~ 500 m de espessura) compreende depósitos eólicos de duna, interdunas, lençóis de areia eólicos, assim como depósitos fluviais. Estes depósitos são organizados em ciclos sedimentares que se sucedem verticalmente, cada ciclo com 6 a 20 m de espessura, caracterizados por lençóis de areia eólicos e depósitos fluviais que são substituídos por dunas eólicas e depósitos interdunas indicando uma tendência de ressecamento para o topo. Os dados de paleoventos indicam um transporte atual dominantemente à norte. Estes ciclos surgem em resposta a oscilações climáticas de um clima relativamente úmido para condições climáticas áridas possivelmente relacionadas com forças orbitais. O limite entre a Unidade Inferior e a Unidade Superior sobrejacente é marcado por uma mudança na arquitetura deposicional e uma mudança brusca no padrão de paleoventos. A Unidade Superior (200 m de espessura) é caracterizada por sucessivos sets de estratos cruzados simples, cada set com ~ 3 a 10 m de espessura, que indicam a migração e acumulação de grandes dunas eólicas sem regiões de interdunas, e que se acumulou como um sistema eólico seco. Os dados de paleoventos indicam transporte atual predominantemente ao sul. Esta sucessão se acumulou durante um episódio de longa duração de hiperaridez. Localmente, a Unidade Superior inclui depósitos fluviais menores que registram um evento úmido de curta duração, ou uma inundação rara por sistemas fluviais provenientes das margens da bacia. A combinação dos dados de paleoventos com mapas paleogeográficos demonstra uma boa correlação entre a circulação atmosférica e distribuição das massas de terras. Entre 1,6-1,54 Ga o Cráton São Francisco estava localizado entre as latitudes médias e o equador. Os registros do regime de vento a partir dos estratos cruzados da Unidade Inferior são consistentes com as posições paleogeográficas do Cráton do São Francisco entre 25º a 35º S, prevalecendo um padrão de vento zonal. Entre 1,54-1,5 Ga a grande massa de terra (cratons do São-Francisco, Congo e Sibéria) derivou mais ao norte atingindo paleolatitudes entre 30º S e 30ºN. Nessa altura, o Cráton do São Francisco estava posicionado na zona equatorial. Esta paleogeografia é consistente com os paleoventos registrados na Unidade Superior, dominando um padrão de vento de monções. / Aeolian systems were abundant and widespread in the early Proterozoic Era, after 2.2 Ga. However, the majority of aeolian successions of such great age are intensely deformed and are preserved only in a fragmentary state meaning that, hitherto, few attempts have been made to apply a sequence stratigraphic approach to determine mechanisms of aeolian construction, accumulation and preservation in such systems, as the same way, no attempts to use the records of aeolian accumulation and palaeogeographic reconstructions of the land mass distribution to model Precambrian atmospheric circulation have been undertaken so far. The Mangabeira Formation is a well preserved Mesoproterozoic erg succession covering part of the São Francisco Craton, northeastern Brazil. Two main units are identified based on stratigraphic architecture and analysis of regional palaeo-sand transport directions. The lower unit of the Mangabeira Formation (~500 m thick) comprises aeolian deposits of dune, interdune, and sand-sheet origin, as well as some of water-lain origin. These deposits are organized into vertically stacked depositional cycles, each 6 to 20 m thick and characterized by aeolian sandsheet and water-lain deposits succeeded by aeolian dune and interdune deposits indicative of a drying-upward trend. Palaeocurrent data indicate aeolian sand transport dominantly to the presentday north. These cycles likely arose in response to climatic oscillations from relatively humid to arid conditions, possibly related to orbital forcing. The boundary between this lower unit and an overlying upper unit is an unconformity of regional extent marked by a change in the depositional architecture and an abrupt shift in palaeocurrent pattern. The Upper Unit (200 m thick) is characterized by stacked sets of simple cross strata, each ~3 to 10 m thick, which are indicative of the migration and accumulation of large aeolian dunes that lacked interdune flats of appreciable size, and which accumulated as a dry aeolian system. Palaeocurrent data indicates aeolian sand transport dominantly to the present-day south. This succession is interpreted to have accumulated during a long-lived episode of hyper-aridity. Locally, the upper unit includes minor fluvial deposits that may record a short-lived event of heightened humidity, or a rare flood event by fluvial systems sourced from the basin margin. The combination of the palaeowinds data with 1.6 - 1.5 Ga palaeogeographic maps demonstrate a good correlation between atmospheric circulation and land mass distribution. At 1.6 to 1.54 Ga São Francisco Craton has been located between mid-latitudes and equatorial zone. The wind regime records from the cross-strata of the Lower Unit are consistent with the palaeogeographic positions of São Francisco between 25º to 35º S, prevail a zonal wind pattern. At 1.54 to 1.5 Ga the large land mass (São-Francisco-Congo and Siberian cratons) drifted farther north reaching palaeolatitudes between 30º S and 30ºN. At that time the São Francisco Craton has been located in the equatorial zone. This palaeogeography is consistent with the northwestern palaeowinds directions recorded in the Upper Unit which dominates a monsoonal wind pattern.

Estromatólitos foram estudados em nove localidades ao sul de Itapeva (SP), principalmente em metacalcários dolomíticos cinza-claro e, secundariamente, em metacalcários calcíticos cinza-escuro, do Grupo Itaiacoca, uma unidade vulcanossedimentar mesoproterozóica da Faixa Ribeira. Foram diferenciados em cinco formas colunares, a mais comum consistindo de colunas coniformes, não ramificadas, de diâmetros e alturas centimétricas a decimétricas, atribuídas a Conophyton. As outras quatro formas, com laminação convexa mas não coniforme, diferem em tamanho, silhueta e estilo/freqüência de ramificação. As diferenças na preservação dos estromatólitos são relacionadas ao comportamentos tectônicos distintos entre o metacalcário dolomítico (mais puro), com comportamento competente, e o calcítico (mais argiloso) que atuou de forma mais plástica. Nas melhores exposições desta área os estromatólitos estão agrupados em bioermas de Conophyton, sem indícios de exposição ou retrabalhamento sub-aéreo ou por ondas, evidenciando um ambiente calmo e relativamente profundo, provavelmente abaixo do nível de base de ondas, de talvez até algumas dezenas de metros de profundidade. Conophyton de Itapeva é semelhante a estromatólitos coniformes próximo a Abapã (PR), também no Grupo Itaiacoca, a cerca de 100 km de Itapeva, mas difere de outras formas, incluindo Conophyton cylindricum e C. metulum, de unidades proterozóicas associadas a margem oeste do Cráton do São Francisco. O Conophyton do Grupo Itaiacoca é semelhante a formas na ex-União Soviética que são geralmente encontrados no Mesoproterozóico ou Neoproterozóico inferior, que é consistente com as datações radiométricas disponíveis que colocam esta unidade próximo ao final do Mesoproterozóico. / Stromatolites were studied at nine localities south of Itapeva, São Paulo, Brazil, generally in light-gray metadolostones and secondarily in dark-gray metalimestones of the Itaiacoca Group, a Mesoproterozoic volcanosedimentary unit of the Ribeira Belt. Five columnar forms were distinguished, the most common consisting of unbranched, coniform columns, with centimetric to decimetric diameters and heights, attributed to Conophyton. The other four forms exhibit convex, but not coniform lamination and differ in size, silhouette and style/frequency of branching. Differences in stromatolite preservation are related to the differing tectonic behavious of the purer and more competent metadolostones and the more argillaceous metalimestones which behaved more plastically. In the best exposures in this area the stromatolites are grouped into Conophyton bioherms, without any evidence of subaerial exposure or reworking by waves, which suggests that they formed in a calm and relatively deep setting (perhaps up to several tens of meters in depth), probably below the base of fairweather water. Conophyton from Itapeva is similar to other coniform stromatolites in the Itaiacoca Group near Abapã (Paraná), about 100 km SW of Itapeva, but differs from other forms, including Conophyton cylindricum and C. metulum, from Proterozoic successions associated with the western margin of the São Francisco Craton. The Conophyton from the Itaiacoca Group is most similar to forms in the ex-Sovietic Union that are usually found in the Mesoproterozoic or lowest Neoproterozoic, which is consistent with available radiometric age dates that place this unit near the end of the Mesoproterozoic.

Submitted by Sáboia Nágila (nagila.saboia01@gmail.com) on 2016-07-29T14:37:42Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação- Antonio Charles da Silva Oliveira.pdf: 18569379 bytes, checksum: e36fa34d61be9f4678a531c17062a3b9 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2016-08-26T13:24:57Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação- Antonio Charles da Silva Oliveira.pdf: 18569379 bytes, checksum: e36fa34d61be9f4678a531c17062a3b9 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Divisão de Documentação/BC Biblioteca Central (ddbc@ufam.edu.br) on 2016-08-26T13:27:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação- Antonio Charles da Silva Oliveira.pdf: 18569379 bytes, checksum: e36fa34d61be9f4678a531c17062a3b9 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-26T13:27:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Dissertação- Antonio Charles da Silva Oliveira.pdf: 18569379 bytes, checksum: e36fa34d61be9f4678a531c17062a3b9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-04-07 / Não informada / In the SW Amazonas State the plutonic-volcanic and sedimentary rocks were grouped in different petrotectonic associations: Juruena Basement (JBA), Juruena Supracrustal Suquence (JSSA), Post-Juruena Volcano-plutonism (PJVPA) and Post-Juruena Sedimentary Sequence (PJSSA). The JBA and JSSA (1.81–1.74 Ga), are arc magmatic-related, whereas the PJVPA (1.64–1.53 Ga) and PJSSA (1.74–1.08 Ga) define the main post-orogenetic events in this region. Magnetic data analysis show at least three patterns, named in relative chronologic, as deep linear anomalies with ENE-WSW trend (L0); linear shallow anomalies with NW-SE (L1) and NE-SW (L2) trends. The relationship of superposition suggests that L1 cross-cut L0, and both are transposed by L2 pattern. Geological-structural studies point out three structural styles, two them belongs to a NW-SE deformational belt: 1) D1 – banding folded structures from gneisses (upper amphibolite, 1.52 Ga); and 2) D2 – mylonitic foliation and schistosity structures in temperature of ~350ºC (greenschist, 1.48-1.46 Ga). The third structural style (D3) has ENE-WSW and NE-SW trends, well-defined cataclastic zones generated under temperature <350ºC (lower greenschist, 1.32 Ga). These structural styles have a correlation with main crustal reworking events of Rondônia-Juruena Provínce: a) L0 magnetic anomalies and S1 polydeformational lineaments - generated in the collisional event (1.64 Ga) responsible by Juruena magmatic arc and Tapajós-Parima continent amalgamation; b) L1 magnetic anomalies and S2 lineaments - related to the another collisional event (1.52 Ga), responsible by Tapajós-Parima and Juruena-Jamari terranes collage; c) L2 magnetic anomalies and S3 lineaments - related to Sunsás Orogenic Cycle, represented by Candeias Orogeny (1.37–1.32 Ga). / No sudeste do estado do Amazonas afloram rochas plutono-vulcânicas e sedimentares (Província Rondônia-Juruena, 1,81–1,51 Ga), agrupadas em associações petrotectônicas: Embasamento Juruena (APEJ), Sequência Supracrustais Juruena (APSSJ), Vulcano- Plutonismo Pós-Juruena (APVPJ) e Sequência Sedimentar Pós-Juruena (APSPJ). As APEJ e APSSJ marcam a geração de arcos magmáticos (1,81–1,74 Ga), enquanto as APVPJ (1,64– 1,53 Ga) e APSPJ (1,74–1,08 Ga) definem eventos pós-orogênicos. Dados aeromagnéticos identificaram o arcabouço estrutural regional definido por três padrões: L0 – anomalias profundas lineares (ENE-WSW), L1 e L2 – anomalias rasas lineares respectivamente com direções NW-SE e NE-SW. As relações de superposição mostram L1 truncando L0 e ambos são interceptados por L2. Estudo geológico-estrutural definiu três estilos estruturais, sendo dois deles com direção NW-SE: 1) D1 - bandamento gnáissico dobrado (anfibolito superior, 1,52 Ga) e 2) D2 - foliação milonítica e xistosidade geradas sob temperaturas de aproximadamente 350ºC (xisto verde, 1,48-1,46 Ga). O terceiro estilo estrutural D3 (ENEWSW a NE-SW) apresenta zonas cataclásticas geradas em temperaturas inferiores a 350ºC (baixo xisto verde, 1,32 Ga). Esses estilos deformacionais apresentam relação com os eventos de retrabalhamento da crosta Rondônia-Juruena: a) anomalias magnéticas L0 e estruturação D1 - geradas em evento colisional (1,64 Ga) relacionado à colagem do arco Juruena com a crosta Tapajós-Parima; b) anomalias magnéticas L1 e estruturação D2 - associadas a evento deformacional (1,52 Ga) atribuído a colisão entre os terrenos Tapajós- Parima e Juruena-Jamari; c) anomalias magnéticas L2 e evento deformacional D3 - correlacionadas ao Ciclo Orogênico Sunsás, representado na região pela Orogenia Candeias (1,37–1,32 Ga).

M.Sc. (Geology) / Nel, B.P. (2013). Petrography and geochemistry of iron formations of the Paleoproterozoic Koegas Subgroup, Transvaal Supergroup, Griqualand West, South Africa. MSc thesis (unpublished), University of Johannesburg, Aucklandpark, pp. 133. The Early Paleoproterozoic Koegas Subgroup comprises a succession of siltstone, mudstone, iron-­‐formation, chert and carbonate rocks that overlies the iron-­‐formations of the Asbestos Hills Subgroup with sharp contact. It is overlain with erosional unconformable contact by glaciogenic diamictites of the Makaganyene Formation. This study focused on the lithostratigraphy, mineralogy and geochemistry of the iron-­‐ formations of the Koegas Subgroup based on fresh diamond drill core samples obtained during the Agouron scientific drilling project in South Africa in 2004. The iron formations the Koegas Subgroup are represented by a few important lithotypes, occurring in distinct sedimentary facies, which formed in unique depositional and diagenetic environments. The iron formations consist essentially of four facies, namely silicate lutite, mixed silicate-­‐siderite lutite, siderite lutite and siderite peloidstone A repetitive sedimentary cycle consisting of fine-­‐grained chemical lithotypes grading upward into reworked chemical lithotypes is evident throughout the Koegas Subgroup iron formations. Silicate lutite formed in deep water settings well below the wave base along a chemocline. Siderite lutite formed in shallower parts of the basin through transformation of primary ferric iron precipitate by iron respiration in presence of organic carbon. Peloidstone formed above normal wave base in shallow water by reworking of earlier siderite lutite deposits. The REE geochemistry provides important clues as to the depositional environment of the iron formation as follows. Depletion in LREE and enrichment in HREE combined with positive Y are typical of ocean water indicate that the iron formations were deposited in a marine environment. Positive Eu anomaly suggest the presence of a hydrothermal component in the ocean water from which the iron formations were deposited. Negative Ce anomalies indicate that somewhere in the marine system Ce3+ was oxidized to Ce4+ oxide, probably in the presence of free oxygen in the ocean water column (Bau and Dulski, 1996). The negative Ce anomalies seen in the Koegas iron formations are the oldest currently known from iron formations. As such the Ce anomalies most probably signify an increase in the oxygenation state of the ocean immediately prior to the rise of atmospheric oxygen as defined by Guo et al. (2009).

D.Phil. / The amalgamation of SW Gondwana after the break-up of Rodinia supercontinent during the Neoproterozoic-early Palaeozic was one of the most active tectonic periods of the earth history and its geological evolution remains controversial. Recently, diverse hypotheses such as mantle plume activity, orthogonal continent-continent and strike-slip collisions according to different models try to explain the complex evolution of the Pan-African Brasiliano orogens and the associated sedimentary basins. In order to get insight of the SW Gondwana reconstruction, provenance analyses were performed on two Neoproterozoic-early Palaeozic sedimentary units: (1) the Arroyo del Soldado Group representing a —5000 meter thick platform succession unconformably overlying the mainly Archaean to Neoproterozoic rocks of the Rio de la Plata Craton in Uruguay and, (2) the Nama Group, a —2000 meter thick shallow marine to fluvial deposit interpreted as a foreland basin in response to tectonism in the adjacent northern Damara and western Gariep Orogenic Belts and unconformably overlying the mainly Mesoproterozoic rocks of the Kalahari Craton in Namibia. Several techniques including petrography, heavy mineral analysis, geochemistry, Sm-Nd isotope analysis and zircon dating were applied to both sedimentary basins. The petrographic, heavy mineral analyses and geochemical results from the Nama Group indicate a recycled upper crust composition characterized by metamorphic and granitic sources and minor mafic rocks. Palaeocurrent analyses of the chromian spinet bearing sandstones of the Nama Basin point to a volcanic island arc source located in the Damara Belt. Detrital zircon dating of the Nama Group display major peaks of Neoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic ages suggesting a provenance from the Damara/Gariep Belts and their basements. Palaeocurrents from the west and the dominance of Neoproterozoic-Cambrian detrital zircon ages (76%) in the "Molasse" stage of the foreland evolution probably indicate exhumation of the felsic volcanic arc root which probably occurred after the time indicated by the younger zircon dated at 531 ±9 Ma. The petrographic and geochemical results from the Arroyo del Soldado Group indicate a recycled upper crust composition characterized by source diversity composed of granite-gneissic and mafic-metamorphic rocks. On average, Nd isotopes account for negative ENd values and TDM ages in a range of variation found elsewhere within SW Gondwana. Detrital zircon dating indicate sources dominated by Palaeoproterozoic (1.7-2.0-2.2 Ga) and subordinate Archaean ages (2.5-2.9-3.5 Ga). The scarcity of Mesoproterozoic and Neoproterozoic zircons and palaeocurrent directions towards the east indicate that the Arroyo del Soldado Group was fed by detritus from the Rio de la Plata Craton favouring a passive margin tectonic setting for their deposition. Deformation of the Arroyo del Soldado Group took place ca. 530 Ma, after strike-slip collision with an African affinity terrane. Finally, based on the palaeogeographic evaluation, the provenance of Nama foreland basin and the passive margin deposit of the Arroyo del Soldado basin suggest that continent-continent collision of the Kalahari/Congo Cratons with the Rio de la Plata Craton and the Cuchilla Dionisio Pelotas Terrane most likely occurred due to strike slip accretion related to a component of N—S shortening in the period between 530 and 495 Ma.

The Haveri Au-Cu deposit is located in southern Finland about 175 km north of Helsinki. It occurs on the northern edge of the continental island arc-type, volcano-sedimentary Tampere Schist Belt (TSB) within the Palaeoproterozoic Svecofennian Domain (2.0 – 1.75 Ga) of the Fennoscandian Shield. The 1.99 Ga Haveri Formation forms the base of the supracrustal stratigraphy consisting of metavolcanic pillow lavas and breccias passing upwards into intercalated metatuffs and metatuffites. There is a continuous gradation upwards from the predominantly volcaniclastic Haveri Formation into the overlying epiclastic meta-greywackes of the Osara Formation. The Haveri deposit is hosted in this contact zone. This supracrustal sequence has been intruded concordantly by quartz-feldspar porphyries. Approximately 1.89 Ga ago, high crustal heat flow led to the generation and emplacement of voluminous synkinematic, I-type, magnetite-series granitoids of the Central Finland Granitoid Complex (CFGC), resulting in coeval high-T/low-P metamorphism (hornfelsic textures), and D₁ deformation. During the crystallisation and cooling of the granitoids, a magmatic-dominated hydrothermal system caused extensive hydrothermal alteration and Cu-Au mineralisation through the late-D₁ to early-D₂ deformation. Initially, a pre-ore Na-Ca alteration phase caused albitisation of the host rock. This was closely followed by strong Ca-Fe alteration, responsible for widespread amphibolitisation and quartz veining and associated with abundant pyrrhotite, magnetite, chalcopyrite and gold mineralisation. More localised calcic-skarn alteration is also present as zoned garnetpyroxene- epidote skarn assemblages with associated pyrrhotite and minor sphalerite, centred on quartzcalcite± scapolite veinlets. Post-ore alteration includes an evolution to more K-rich alteration (biotitisation). Late D₂-retrograde chlorite began to replace the earlier high-T assemblage. Late emanations (post-D₂ and pre-D₃) from the cooling granitoids, under lower temperatures and oxidising conditions, are represented by carbonate-barite veins and epidote veinlets. Later, narrow dolerite dykes were emplaced followed by a weak D₃ deformation, resulting in shearing and structural reactivation along the carbonate-barite bands. This phase was accompanied by pyrite deposition. Both sulphides and oxides are common at Haveri, with ore types varying from massive sulphide and/or magnetite, to networks of veinlets and disseminations of oxides and/or sulphides. Cataclastites, consisting of deformed, brecciated bands of sulphide, with rounded and angular clasts of quartz vein material and altered host-rock are an economically important ore type. Ore minerals are principally pyrrhotite, magnetite and chalcopyrite with lesser amounts of pyrite, molybdenite and sphalerite. There is a general progression from early magnetite, through pyrrhotite to pyrite indicating increasing sulphidation with time. Gold is typically found as free gold within quartz veins and within intense zones of amphibolitisation. Considerable gold is also found in the cataclastite ore type either as invisible gold within the sulphides and/or as free gold within the breccia fragments. The unaltered amphibolites of the Haveri Formation can be classified as medium-K basalts of the tholeiitic trend. Trace and REE support an interpretation of formation in a back-arc basin setting. The unaltered porphyritic rocks are calc-alkaline dacites, and are interpreted, along with the granitoids as having an arc-type origin. This is consistent with the evolution from an initial back-arc basin, through a period of passive margin and/or fore-arc deposition represented by the Osara Formation greywackes and the basal stratigraphy of the TSB, prior to the onset of arc-related volcanic activity characteristic of the TSB and the Svecofennian proper. Using a combination of petrogenetic grids, mineral compositions (garnet-biotite and hornblendeplagioclase thermometers) and oxygen isotope thermometry, peak metamorphism can be constrained to a maximum of approximately 600 °C and 1.5 kbars pressure. Furthermore, the petrogenetic grids indicate that the REDOX conditions can be constrained at 600°C to log f(O₂) values of approximately - 21.0 to -26.0 and -14.5 to -17.5 for the metasedimentary rocks and mafic metavolcanic rocks respectively, thus indicating the presence of a significant REDOX boundary. Amphibole compositions from the Ca-Fe alteration phase (amphibolitisation) indicate iron enrichment with increasing alteration corresponding to higher temperatures of formation. Oxygen isotope studies combined with limited fluid inclusion studies indicate that the Ca-Fe alteration and associated quartz veins formed at high temperatures (530 – 610°C) from low CO₂, low- to moderately saline (<10 eq. wt% NaCl), magmatic-dominated fluids. Fluid inclusion decrepitation textures in the quartz veins suggest isobaric decompression. This is compatible with formation in high-T/low-P environments such as contact aureoles and island arcs. The calcic-skarn assemblage, combined with phase equilibria and sphalerite geothermometry, are indicative of formation at high temperatures (500 – 600 °C) from fluids with higher CO₂ contents and more saline compositions than those responsible for the Fe-Ca alteration. Limited fluid inclusion studies have identified hypersaline inclusions in secondary inclusion trails within quartz. The presence of calcite and scapolite also support formation from CO₂-rich saline fluids. It is suggested that the calcic-skarn alteration and the amphibolitisation evolved from the same fluids, and that P-T changes led to fluid unmixing resulting in two fluid types responsible for the observed alteration variations. Chlorite geothermometry on retrograde chlorite indicates temperatures of 309 – 368 °C. As chlorite represents the latest hydrothermal event, this can be taken as a lower temperature limit for hydrothermal alteration and mineralisation at Haveri.The gold mineralisation at Haveri is related primarily to the Ca-Fe alteration. Under such P-T-X conditions gold was transported as chloride complexes. Ore was localised by a combination of structural controls (shears and folds) and REDOX reactions along the boundary between the oxidised metavolcanics and the reduced metasediments. In addition, fluid unmixing caused an increase in pH, and thus further augmented the precipitation of Cu and Au. During the late D₂-event, temperatures fell below 400 °C, and fluids may have remobilised Au and Cu as bisulphide complexes into the shearcontrolled cataclastites and massive sulphides. The Haveri deposit has many similarities with ore deposit models that include orogenic lode-gold deposits, certain Au-skarn deposits and Fe-oxide Cu-Au deposits. However, many characteristics of the Haveri deposit, including tectonic setting, host lithologies, alteration types, proximity to I-type granitoids and P-T-X conditions of formation, compare favourably with other Early Proterozoic deposits within the TSB and Fennoscandia, as well as many of the deposits in the Cloncurry district of Australia. Consequently, the Haveri deposit can be seen to represent a high-T, Ca-rich member of the recently recognised Fe-oxide Cu-Au group of deposits.