La présente thèse est un essai de compréhension de la transgression récurrente du cadre de « bonne gouvernance », imposé par la Banque Mondiale, face au constat des mauvais résultats des entreprises publiques béninoises (ancien Dahomey). Elle tente donc de répondre à une question : pourquoi les mécanismes, procédures et règles établis sont-ils en permanence transgressés dans le secteur public ? Répondre à cette question permet de saisir les causes de l’éloignement des entreprises de la performance mobilisée, dans ce contexte, sous le prisme de l’efficacité socio-économique, de la satisfaction des clients-usagers et de la rationalisation des ressources. Cette recherche se fonde sur l’idée que les méthodes de gestion doivent s’inscrire dans le cadre socioculturel et mobilise la notion de clan comme servant de base à la formation du contrat psychologique des fournisseurs et des employés des entreprises publiques dans les commandes publiques d’une part et les relations d’emploi d’autre part. Ce contrat psychologique favorise les transgressions du cadre de « bonne gouvernance ». Il a été question d’explorer, à la SBEE et au CNCB, si les logiques claniques fondent ou non les contrats psychologiques, propices aux transgressions, ce qui éloigne ces entreprises de la performance. Des interviews conduites auprès des parties prenantes des achats publics (fournisseurs, organes de passation internes à l’entreprise) et de l’emploi (personnels, dirigeants), de l’exploitation des documents collectés et de la narration des faits observés, il ressort que l’entreprise publique est perçue comme un clan. Aussi, cohabitent les clans politique, ethnique et familial de même que le « paternalisme adoptif » dont les logiques d’action comportent les transgressions entraînant la mauvaise utilisation des ressources publiques et l’insatisfaction des clients-usagers. Toutefois, le phénomène du clan n’est pas exclusif. La perception des entreprises publiques par les différents acteurs de même que la bonne foi de gens, désireux d’apporter leur expertise en vue de sortir du chômage, sont aussi parfois la base des contrats psychologiques. Il arrive, en général, que le contrat psychologique fasse l’objet de rupture, ce qui est à l’origine de grandes déceptions. Cette situation peut ne pas être définitive. A force de lutte, d’espoir ou à l’avènement d’un nouveau directeur, leurs anciennes attentes/promesses peuvent être restaurées, ce qui correspond à une reprise du contrat psychologique. La performance des entreprises publiques est, en premier lieu, clanique en sus de la recherche de la satisfaction de besoins physiologiques par du travail honnête, ce que l’environnement peut corrompre. L’éloignement des entreprises publiques de la performance est donc favorisé par un ensemble de facteurs convergents dont le clan, la représentation de l’entreprise comme « une manne à se distribuer » puis la recherche de la sécurité d’emploi dans un contexte marqué par le chômage. Quelles sont les solutions aux transgressions ? - En premier lieu, le recul effectif du pouvoir politique des entreprises publiques par l’intégration des administrateurs extérieurs, bien que ne participant pas au capital est une solution. - Permettre au conseil d’administration de jouer son plein rôle. - Il est impossible d’exclure les clans et leurs logiques. Toutefois, ils ne devraient pas exister au détriment des intérêts de la collectivité nationale. Ainsi, est-il utile de remettre le travail, l’équité la contribution individuelle et collective au cœur de l’éducation nationale. - Les règles d’organisation existantes pourraient être évaluées, de nouvelles règles élaborées suivant le principe de l’« inclusiveness » puis mises en œuvre. - Assurer leur bonne diffusion/internalisation et la surveillance collective de leur mise en œuvre. - Les objectifs communs de performance devront être définis et atteints ensembles. / This thesis is an understanding of the recurring transgression of testing the framework of "good governance" imposed by the World Bank, opposite the finding of bad results Beninese public enterprises (former Dahomey). So it tries to answer a question: why are the mechanisms established, procedures and rules constantly violated in the public sector? Answering this question captures the causes of the remoteness of used performance businesses, in this context, from the perspective of socio-economic efficiency, user-customers satisfaction and good use of resources. This research is based on the idea that management practices must be part of the socio-cultural context and mobilizes the notion of clan as providing the basis for the formation of the suppliers and employees psychological contract of public companies in public procurement on the one hand, and employment relationships on the other. This promotes the context of transgressions of "good governance". There has been talk of exploring, SBEE and CNCB, if the clan logic based or not psychological contracts, prone transgressions, what separates these companies from performance.From Interviews conducted with stakeholders in public procurement (suppliers, internal organs award to the company) and employment relations (personal, leaders), operation of the documents collected within companies and narration of observed facts, it appears that the public company is represented as a clan. Also coexist political, ethnic and family clans as the "adoptive paternalism" whose action logics include transgressions involving the misuse of public resources and the dissatisfaction of the users-customers. However, the clan is not exclusive. The perception of public enterprises by the various stakeholders as well as the good faith of people, eager to bring their expertise to get out of unemployment, determine the psychological contracts. It happens, in general, that the psychological contract is subject to rupture, which is the source of great disappointment. This may not be definitive. With a fight of strength, hope or the advent of a new director, their former expectations / promises can be restored, corresponding to a recovery of the psychological contract. The performance of public enterprises is first of all, clanic. But, looking for the satisfaction of physiological needs by honest work is poorly exploited. The remoteness of public enterprises performance is enhanced by a set of converging factors including the clan, company representation as "a godsend to distribute" then search for job security in an unemployment context and particularly the fear of unemployment. On the factors listed above, what are the solutions to the transgressions? - First, the decline of the state of governance of public enterprises through the integration of outside directors, although not participating in their capital. - It is impossible to exclude the clan logic. However, the organizational rules must be implemented and the common goals of performance must be set and achieved together. - Develop the new rules on the principle of inclusiveness, ensure their proper dissemination / internalization and collective monitoring of their implementation. - Focus on work values and contribution to the nation. As perspective, research on the performance of public enterprises is based on the reality of the clan and representations help to better define the objectives to make them feasible.

Over the last three decades the UK higher education system has operated under an ideological approach sometimes referred to as New Managerialism (Deem, 2004). The psychological contract of the individual actor within this altered environment was the subject of the research in this study. The psychological contract has been defined as an individual’s beliefs regarding the terms and conditions of a reciprocal informal exchange agreement between themselves and their organisations (Rousseau, 1989). The thesis focused on the psychological contracts of higher education lecturers in a post-92 University Business School in the United Kingdom. The study considered the construction of the psychological contract, the appropriateness of the initial contract, perceived influences on the contract, and behavioural consequences of contract breach and/or violation. The research was focussed on the role of the lecturer in interpreting and unpacking his/her perceptions and understandings. The research questions required data that was personal and experiential. Interviews were undertaken which allowed participants to provide life history accounts that described and theorised about their actions in the social world over time. The approach used had a number of limitations which were identified and considered within the thesis. Notwithstanding the limitations of the research approach, the data suggested that each individual had analysed the extent to which a new employment context would deliver transactional, relational, and ideological reward. However, ideology was less relevant in making the decision to accept higher education employment than either transactional or relational elements. Post-entry, sensemaking acted as a confirmation mechanism in respect of the expectations of what the job would entail and the pecuniary and non-pecuniary benefits that would be received. Initial contracts were relatively accurate in their conceptualisation of the work involved in being a higher education academic. Within the Business School examined in this study, management decisions impacted on participants from both an economic and socio-economic perspective. Employees described how individual work contexts were altered by management decisions. Reaction to decisions depended on individual circumstances at any given juncture based on the influences from multiple contexts both internal and external to the workplace. Context was not homogenous and wide-ranging individual differences were apparent. These contexts played a part in defining to what extent changed work environments would be accepted or not. Participants were continuously active and involved in the evaluation of the multiple contexts that were relevant to them. The capacity to manipulate managers and influence decisions to counteract context change was also evident. The ability to thwart changes to work context varied between individuals and over time. This study identified how participants were able to create and shape their own work environment to satisfy their needs and wants during their careers within a structure that remained predominantly organic in nature despite a changing higher education environment. The goal of the employee was to create the idiosyncratic deal, the specific individually tailored work environment that would deliver the satisfaction required from higher education employment. The psychological contracts were self-focussed and self-oriented but this did not necessarily mean that employees were not also actively involved in assisting the organisation to achieve its ambitions. The notion that a managerial agenda had resulted in the erosion of individualism in higher education was not supported. There was evidence that the psychological contract was unilaterally changed and altered by the employee whenever he or she chose, rather than a negotiated change to a binding agreement. Alteration was intrinsically a private determination and often not communicated.

Incorporating a psychological contract perspective into information technology projects, this study intends to explore the elements of the software publisher-reseller-end user psychological contract in the context of IT projects and contribute to existing literature in the field of IT psychological contracts. The data for this study was collected via 10 interviews conducted across 5 different cases. Interviewees were asked to describe IT projects they were recently involved in and outline what they perceived to be their obligations towards the other stakeholders and likewise, the obligations of the other stakeholders upon them. Interviews were transcribed and coded in accordance with existing IT project psychological contract elements derived from literature. The results of this study provided support to all psychological contract elements of the existing model and suggest refinements to better capture the perceived obligations of stakeholders in IT Projects. Furthermore, we observe that while the resellers’ and software publishers’ psychological contracts with end users conformed to the obligations expected under the model of supplier-customer relationships, the software reseller-software publisher psychological contracts reciprocally contained elements of both supplier and customer obligations. Finally, the findings of this study revealed that critical to the success of IT projects are the elements of transparency, accuracy, dedication, knowledge and responsibility.

The present study examined the relationships of organizational justice and the psychological contract with four outcome variables in a downsizing context. Multinational data were gathered from survivors representing a variety of organizations and industries. The main focus of the current study examined the relationships between survivors' perceptions of procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice and organizational commitment, job satisfaction, turnover intentions, and trust in management. Correlational data indicated that procedural, interpersonal, and informational justice all demonstrated significant correlations with the outcome variables with interpersonal justice demonstrating higher correlations with the outcome variables than procedural justice. Additionally, the results of two structural models indicated that, although both models fit the data equally well, interpersonal justice was the dominant predictor of the outcome variables. Finally, moderated multiple regression analyses indicated that the psychological contract did not act as a moderator on the relationships between the justice and the outcome variables. However, supplemental confirmatory factor analysis suggested that the justice variables might act as a mediator of the psychological contract - outcome variable relationships. Possible explanations of the results as well as implications for practice and future research are provided.

Studiens syfte var att fördjupa förståelsen gällande uppskattning i arbetslivet. Uppskattning är ett aktuellt ämne som ofta lyfts i media och det är intressant att se till de effekterna som uppskattning kan ge. För att fördjupa förståelsen kring ämnet så undersöktes det hur chefer och medarbetare upplevde uppskattning, vilka positiva och negativa associationer det fanns kopplade till uppskattning samt om det fanns ett samförstånd eller en dissonans i upplevelsen av uppskattning mellan chefer och medarbetare. Studien är genomförd med ett perspektiv på både chefer och medarbetares upplevelse av uppskattning och båda grupperna kan dra nytta av undersökningens resultat. Den teoretiska referensramen som består av tolkningar av uppskattningsbegreppet, belöningssystemen och det psykologiska kontraktet ligger till grund för analysen av det empiriska materialet. Det empiriska materialet samlades in genom 11 intervjuer med både chefer och anställda inom kommun- och restaurangbranschen. Resultatet visar på att den verbala uppskattningen är den viktigaste formen av uppskattning för båda grupperna. Det fanns vissa skillnader mellan grupperna och det återfanns både en samstämmighet och en dissonans i den upplevda uppskattningen på arbetsplatserna. Överlag var uppfattningen kring uppskattning positiv. / The purpose of the study was to deepen the understanding of appreciation in working life. Appreciation is a current topic that is often raised in the media and it is interesting to see the effects that appreciation can give. To deepen the understanding of the subject, it was investigated how managers and employees experienced appreciation, what positive and negative associations there were linked to appreciation and whether there was a consensus or a dissonance in the experience of appreciation between managers and employees. The study was conducted with a perspective on both managers and employees experience of appreciation and both groups can benefit from the study’s results. The theoretical frame of reference, which consists of interpretations of the concept of appreciation, the reward systems and the psychological contract, forms the basis for the analysis of the empirical material. The empirical material was collected through 11 interviews with both managers and employees in the municipal and restaurant industry. The results show that verbal appreciation is the most important form of appreciation for both groups. There were some differences between the groups and there was both a consensus and a dissonance in the perceived appreciation in the workplaces. Overall, the perception of appreciation was positive.

Syftet med undersökningen var att undersöka upplevelsen av psykologiska kontrakt hos mellanchefer, samt om det fanns en koppling i hur de upplevde sitt eget ledarskap i förhållande till synen på psykologiska kontrakt. En kvalitativ studie genomfördes med åtta semistrukturerade intervjuer med mellanchefer från två olika branscher för att skapa en bild av deras syn på psykologiska kontrakt och upplevelsen av sitt ledarskap. Data analyserades genom tematisk analys, där fem huvudteman framkom. Resultatet visade att mellancheferna tyckte att transparens i ledarskapet var viktigt för att skapa tillit till medarbetarna. Resultatet visade att det bör finnas krav som möter förutsättningar. Ett coachande ledarskap med ett prestigelöst förhållningssätt är till fördel för att få med sig personalen. Engagemang var genomgående där mellancheferna menade att det skapar förtroende och tillit genom att visa lyhördhet och handlingskraft. Studien visade att det fanns en koppling mellan hur mellanchefer leder medarbetare och deras syn på psykologiska kontrakt. / The purpose of the study was to examine the experience of psychological contracts with middle managers, and whether there is a link in how they experience their leadership in relation to their view on psychological contracts. A qualitative study was conducted with eight semi-structured interviews with middle managers from two different branches to create a picture of their views on psychological contracts and experiences of their leadership. Data was analyzed through an thematic analysis, where five main themes emerged. The result showed that the middle managers thought that transparency in the leadership is important for creating trust in the employees. The result showed that requirement should encounter prerequisites. Coaching leadership with prestigeless approach is a benefit to bring along employees. Involvement by showing responsiveness and decisiveness for employees create confidence and trust. The study showed that there was a link between middle managers leadership and their views on psychological contracts.

This study explores the previously less researched impact of corporate reputation on employees, more specifically on employee engagement. Employee engagement and corporate reputation are concepts that have been receiving attention in both business and academia alike, especially in view of the economic turmoil of the past decade as both constructs have been shown to affect profits. The study was designed in a way to measure the impact of employees’ perceptions of corporate reputation on their engagement with the corporation, while controlling for the state of their psychological contract with the organisation. An online survey of 509 employees from a large South African bank provided the data to which a Structural Equation Model (SEM) emanating from the theoretical background was fitted. The results of the model unequivocally confirmed that corporate reputation perceptions are an important predictor of employee engagement. It was also found that psychological contract breach influences both perceptions of reputation by employees and employee engagement directly. The implication is that corporate reputation can have a strong influence on tangible results through employee engagement. / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / unrestricted

Psykologiska kontrakt innefattar upplevelser av förväntningar och skyldigheter i den ömsesidiga relationen mellan arbetsgivare och arbetstagare. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka till vilken grad arbetstagare upplevde att deras arbetsgivare hade uppfyllt sin del av det psykologiska kontraktet. För att göra detta skickades ett frågeformulär ut via mail och sociala medier till arbetstagare på olika organisationer. Frågeformuläret byggde på påståenden inom det relationella psykologiska kontraktet med områdena lojalitet, förtroende, uppskattning, kommunikation och stöd. Vi undersökte om anställningslängd och kön hade en påverkan på uppfattandet om uppfyllandet av det psykologiska kontraktet. Resultaten visade en signifikant skillnad i anställningslängd och uppfattandet av lojalitet, vilket indikerar att förväntningar om lojalitet kommer bli mer uppfyllt med tiden. Däremot var det en ickesignifikant effekt på anställningslängd och uppfattningen av kontraktets totala uppfyllnad, samt en icke-signifikant effekt på kön och uppfyllandet.

Approximately 1,6 percent of Swedish employees work under a consultancy firm, which is a fast-growing market. The responsibility of consultant’s work environment is in accordance with Swedish legislation on systematic work environment (SAM) divided between consultant- and client company. This study investigated how 1) consultants experience that their consultant- and client company employers, respectively, work with work environment health; 2) both consultant- and client company employers, respectively, experience their work with implementing work environment/health practices based on SAM. Data collection consisted of 12 in-depth interviews with 8 consultants, 3 consultant managers, and 1 workplace manager. Based on thematic analysis of interviews with consultants three themes were identified: Communication and relation with managers; Justice and inclusion; Managers’ involvement in workplace health. Based on thematic analysis of interviews with managers four themes were identified: Working with SAM; Work environment goals, Relation between consultant- and workplace managers, Relation with consultants. Findings showed the importance of supportive and present leadership, workplace justice and inclusion for consultants’ wellbeing. This responsibility of consultant’s daily work environment was mainly taken by workplace managers. Conclusions are that clear communication and division of responsibility between consultant- and workplace managers regarding consultants’ work environment/health is vital for well-functioning SAM.

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