Background The psychosocial work environment affects our health (e.g., sick leave and mortality rates). Research on psychosocial work factors and burnout has focused on specific workplaces or occupations and rarely evaluated in the general population or used longitudinal designs. In Sweden, the diagnosis of exhaustion disorder (closely related to burnout) is a common cause for sick leave. The effects of psychosocial work environments on the process of returning to work has not been studied in this specific patient group. The overall aims of this thesis were to (1) assess the level of burnout in a working general population and investigate the importance of psychosocial work factors and sex on burnout, and (2) study reduction of sick leave and experiences of returning to work in burnout patients, with special attention towards psychosocial work factors. Methods An occupationally active subset (n=1000) of the 2004 Northern Sweden MONICA survey was used in a cross-sectional study. A five-year follow-up of this population was also performed (n=626). Level of burnout was measured using the Shirom Melamed Burnout Questionnaire (SMBQ). Burnout patients were studied for the second thesis aim. A cohort of 117 patients from the REST project was investigated using a baseline questionnaire and sick leave data at two-year follow-up. Grounded Theory was used for an in-depth interview and analysis of 12 employed patients. Results Cross-sectional results from the working general population showed that women have higher levels of burnout than men. In both sexes, work demands, work control, and job insecurity were associated with burnout levels. Among women, education, socioeconomic position, work object, and working hours were also important. Work factors in combination with situational life factors explained about half the difference in burnout level between women and men. Longitudinal results show that burnout levels decrease with age in both sexes, although the changes occur at an earlier age for men. A constant job strain, increased job insecurity, and a worsened economic situation are related to an increase in burnout level. When studying risk factor accumulation, each additional risk factor exposure increases the burnout level. In burnout patients, low work control and use of covert coping towards supervisors and workmates predicts unchanged sick leave levels after a twoyear period. Borderline significance was found between work overcommitment and reduced sick leave. Both personal resources and external support are described as important factors when regaining the ability to work. Perceived validation, insights into the situation and adaptive coping skills increase the chance of regaining the ability to work. External support, particularly from the workplace, is also important. Conclusion There are links between psychosocial work factors and burnout levels in a working general population and sick leave levels in burnout patients. Socioeconomic position and working conditions are important for the level of burnout among working women. In the working population, age differences occur between the sexes; women reduce their burnout levels later in life than men. In the burnout patient population, coping patterns and control at work predict sick leave levels after two years. Both internal resources and external support are important when burnout patients describe the process of regaining the ability to work. The workplace and the work environment are important in preventing working people from becoming burned out and in easeing return to work after sick leave. A person’s coping pattern is also important in reduction of sick leave.

Les facteurs psychosociaux au travail sont devenus un enjeu de santé publique et de santé au travail et font l’objet d’une attention particulière des politiques de prévention. Cependant, le rôle étiologique de ces facteurs sur la santé mentale reste à approfondir, notamment via des études intégrant un outil diagnostique, rarement utilisé dans ce contexte. De plus, le rôle de ces facteurs dans l’explication des inégalités sociales de santé mentale reste mal connu. Les objectifs de la thèse sont donc l’étude du rôle étiologique des facteurs psychosociaux au travail sur les troubles de la santé mentale mesurés par un instrument diagnostique et l’évaluation de leur contribution dans les inégalités sociales de santé mentale.Deux jeux de données ont été exploités : Samotrace (enquête régionale sur 6056 salariés) et SIP -Santé et Itinéraire Professionnel- (enquête nationale sur 7709 travailleurs). Samotrace se caractérise par la présence de questionnaires validés pour la mesure des facteurs psychosociaux au travail, et SIP par la présence d’un outil diagnostique pour la mesure de la dépression et de l’anxiété. Des méthodes statistiques multivariées ont été employées, notamment la régression logistique. Des tests d’interactions et la méthode du bootstrap ont également été utilisés. Toutes les analyses ont été réalisées séparément pour les hommes et les femmes.La faible latitude décisionnelle, le surinvestissement et les exigences émotionnelles étaient des facteurs de risque de dépression et d’anxiété, pour les deux genres. D’autres facteurs de risque spécifiques ont été observés selon la pathologie et le genre (insécurité de l’emploi, forte demande psychologique, conflit éthique, faibles récompenses). Peu d’inégalités sociales de santé mentale ont été mises en évidence hormis pour la santé perçue, au détriment des salariés les moins qualifiés. Les facteurs professionnels contribuaient à réduire les inégalités sociales de santé perçue de 76% et plus, selon le genre et la profession. Parmi eux, les facteurs psychosociaux au travail jouaient un rôle substantiel notamment la faible latitude décisionnelle, et dans une moindre mesure (selon la profession et le genre) : le faible soutien social, les faibles récompenses, le travail de nuit, les difficultés de conciliation vie professionnelle-vie familiale, les violences et menaces/humiliations.Des actions de prévention ciblées sur les facteurs de risque identifiés, y compris sur des facteurs psychosociaux au travail émergents, pourraient être envisagées et une meilleure prise en compte de ces facteurs en milieu de travail serait nécessaire. Développer les connaissances sous l’angle des inégalités sociales de santé mentale permettrait de dégager des pistes d’actions correctives adaptées aux groupes sociaux ou professionnels les plus concernés. Les études étant transversales, les résultats observés devront être confirmés par d’autres travaux. / Psychosocial work factors are a public health and occupational health issue and are the object of special prevention policies. However, the etiological role of these factors on mental health need to be developed, particularly studies using diagnostic interviews, rarely used in this context. Moreover, the role of these factors in the explanation of social inequalities in mental health is still unknown. The objectives of this PhD thesis are to study the etiological role of psychosocial work factors on mental disorders, measured using a diagnostic interview, and to evaluate the contribution of these factors to social inequalities in mental health.The data from two surveys were used: Samotrace (regional survey based on 6056 employees) and SIP (national survey based on 7709 workers). The main feature for Samotrace was the use of validated questionnaires to measure psychosocial work factors, and for SIP it was the use of a diagnostic instrument to measure depressive and anxiety disorders. Multivariate analyses were conducted, including logistic regression analysis. Interaction tests and the bootstrap method were also used. All analyses were carried out separately for men and women.Low decision latitude, overcommitment and emotional demands were found to be risk factors for depressive and anxiety disorders, for both genders. Other risk factors were observed according to gender or mental health outcome studied (job insecurity, high psychological demands, ethical conflict, low reward). Few social inequalities in mental health were observed except for self-reported health; manual workers being more likely to report poor health. Occupational factors reduced social inequalities in health by 76% and more, according to gender and occupation studied. Among occupational factors, psychosocial work factors played a substantial role, particularly low decision latitude, and to a lesser extent (according to occupation and gender): low social support, low reward, night work, work-life imbalance, physical violence and bullying.Prevention actions focussing on identified risk factors, including emergent psychosocial work factors, should be considered and a better implementation at workplace would be necessary. Improving knowledge on social inequalities of mental health may lead to adequate preventive actions targeting the most exposed social or occupational groups. As our studies were cross-sectional, our results should be confirmed by forthcoming prospective studies.

Les expositions psychosociales au travail restent un problème de santé publique important en Europe. Il est nécessaire d'étudier le rôle de ces expositions dans l'association avec la santé en explorant les différences selon le genre, la position sociale et le pays. Le rôle de ces expositions dans l'explication des inégalités sociales du bien-être est presque inexploré. À ce jour, les concepts émergents d'expositions psychosociales au travail ont été souvent négligés.À l’aide des enquêtes européennes sur la qualité de vie 2007 (17 005 travailleurs) et sur les conditions de travail 2010 (33 443 salariés), les résultats ont montré que les inégalités sociales de santé perçue et du bien-être persistent en Europe. L'ampleur de ces inégalités diffère selon le genre et est plus élevé dans les pays qui ne sont pas dans l'Union européenne. Une forte demande psychologique, des faibles récompenses et une mauvaise conciliation travail-famille sont des facteurs de risque pour la santé perçue dans le modèle ajusté complet. Un certain nombre des facteurs psychosociaux au travail ont montré des associations significatives avec un faible bien-être. Presque aucune différence selon le genre, la profession et le pays n’a été trouvée dans ces associations pour les deux marqueurs de la santé. Les facteurs psychosociaux au travail contribuent à réduire les inégalités sociales de bien-être de 97% et plus selon le genre et la profession. Parmi eux, les facteurs liés à l’influence et au développement des compétences jouent un rôle important.Le genre, la position sociale et une grande variété de facteurs psychosociaux au travail doivent être considérés de manière plus complète dans les futures recherches et politiques de prévention. Les résultats de cette thèse pourraient être utilisés comme un élément fondamental pour mettre en œuvre des politiques de prévention au niveau européen. / Psychosocial work exposures remain a public health issue in Europe. There is a need of studying the role of these exposures in the association with health outcomes exploring differences according to gender, social position and country at the same time. The role of these exposures in the explanation of social inequalities in well-being is almost unexplored. To date emergent concepts of psychosocial work exposures have been often neglected. Using European data coming from the European Quality of Life Survey 2007 (17005 workers) and the European Working Conditions Survey 2010 (33443 employees), the results showed that social inequalities in self-reported health (SRH) and well-being remain in Europe. The magnitude of these inequalities differed according to gender and was higher in countries that are not in the European Union. High psychological demands, low reward and work-life imbalance were risk factors for poor SRH in the full-adjusted model. A number and variety of psychosocial work factors showed significant associations with poor well-being. Almost no differences according to gender, occupation and country were found in the associations with both health outcomes. Psychosocial work factors reduced social inequalities in well-being by 97% and more according to gender and occupation studied. Factors related to influence and development at work played a substantial role.Gender, social position and a variety of psychosocial work factors should be considered more comprehensively in future research and policies. Findings of this thesis could be used as a fundamental element in implementing health prevention policies at a European level.

The background to this thesis is the dramatic increase of the long-term sickness absence that took place in Sweden from the late 1990s. There was also a shift in the diagnostic pattern with rising mental diagnoses. The overall purpose was to describe and try to understand the process leading to long-term sickness absence from the perspective of the sickness absentees, in order to get a better knowledge base for preventive and rehabilitative actions. The thesis comprises four studies (I-IV). Research methods have been both qualitative and quantitative. In study I data from individual interviews with 32 persons on long-term sick leave due to burnout was analyzed using a grounded theory approach. In study II the study population comprised of 2064 employed sick-listed persons, a sub sample derived from the 2002 national Swedish survey on health, working conditions, life situation and sick-listing. It was analyzed if persons with burnout had higher probability of having experienced the steps in the burnout staircase compared to other diagnostic groups in accordance with the previously suggested hypothesis of "the burnout staircase". Study III comprised of 2521 employed persons, a sub sample derived from the same national survey as in study II. It was analyzed if psychosocial work environment and conflicts and losses in private life independently or in combination were more strongly associated to sickness absence with mental diagnoses as compared to a healthy population. In study IV individual interviews with 25 professional rehabilitation actors and 14 unemployed sick-listed persons were conducted. Data were analyzed according to grounded theory method. The process that led to sicknes absence can be described as an emotional deprivation process, illustrated as a flight of stairs (the burnout staircase) describing a sequence of steps toward sickness absence (I). In accordance with the tested hypothesis persons with burnout to a noticeable higher extent reported expereince of being in the different steps in the burnout staircase compared to sickness absentees with other diagnoses. The model seemed to be valid also for persons with other mental diagnoses (II). Reorganization and conflicts at work as well as adding adverse private life events were associated with increased risk for sickness absence with mental diagnosis (III). Three significant factors behind the weak co-operation between local social insurance and employment agencies were identified: indistinct regulation of co-operation, shifting political goals over time and conflicting goals between agencies (IV). In this thesis it has been suggested that the course of events preceding sickness absence might be understood as a process of emotional deprivation, where the individual is gradually emptied of the life-giving emotional energy revealed in joy, commitment, and empathy. This life-giving force finds its nourishment in safe and secure social relations with others and in a social structure that promotes this type of social relations. The profound changes in the Swedish labour market during the 1990s influenced not just the psychosocial work climate but also the rehabilitation efforts for unemployed sick-listed persons. When the political goal of reducing the unemployment level came to the forefront the indistinct regulation and the conflicting goals in addition were factors that impaired co-ordinated rehabilitation. In this process also the physicians were involved. A labour market problem was turned into a medical problem.