Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) can be released as a signal between cells in an autocrine and paracrine manner that binds purinergic receptors. Highly conserved, purinergic receptors expressed on the cell surface of neurons and astrocytes are capable of being activated across eight orders of magnitude from hundreds of nanomolar ATP to millimolar. Genetically encoded fluorescent protein biosensors have been used to detect ATP outside the cell, but a high affinity extracellular ATP sensor is required to study the ATP signaling dynamics from nanomolar to micromolar magnitudes. Previously, our lab developed a first generation sensor of extracellular ATP called ECATS1 (Conley et al.). To develop an improved sensor, we caried out site-directed mutagenesis of the sensor's ATP binding site and identified a mutant that exhibited a 4-fold increase in ATP binding affinity in solution. We then optimized the membrane-tethering of the sensor to achieve the 4-fold increase in extracellular ATP binding affinity when measured on live cell.s This second-generation sensor was dubbed ECATS2. As a proof-of-concept application, we sought to detect ATP release from cells using <i>in vitro</i> models of edema. We subjected HEK293A cells to hypo-osmotic shock (HOS), revealing ATP release at micromolar levels. Then we tested HOS in cultured cortical astrocytes, also revealing micromolar ATP release. However, when we tested neuron-astrocyte co-cultures, we no longer observed ATP release in response to HOS. Interestingly, this implies that co-culture either entirely prevented ATP release from astrocytes or dampened it into the nanomolar range below the limit of ECATS2 detection. Thus, we have validated the development of a higher affinity, second-generation sensor and used it to discover that ATP release from astrocytes after HOS can be affected by the presence of neurons. <br>

Quimioreceptores centrais (QC) e periféricos (QP) são células especializadas em detectar alterações de CO2, O2 e H+, e promover ajustes na ventilação e pressão arterial via sistema nervoso central. Avaliamos aqui a ação da sinalização purinérgica em áreas que apresentam essa propriedade (RTN, C1, NTScom e RPa) durante as respostas cardiorrespiratórias promovidas pela ativação dos quimiorreceptores, e a possível participação de astrócitos. Encontramos evidências que receptores P2 modulam a resposta de QC no RTN, enquanto que receptores P2Y1 e receptores glutamatérgicos, modulam a resposta de QP no C1, e que a sinalização purinérgica na região do NTScom ou na região RPa não contribui para resposta de QC. A manipulação farmacológica de astrócitos do RTN com fluorocitrato, mas não da região do NTScom e RPa, produz alterações respiratórias via receptores P2. Nossos achados evidenciam a importância e contribuem para descriminação dos mecanismos de ação da sinalização purinérgica na região bulbo ventrolateral rostral durante a ativação QC e QP. / Central (CC) and peripherals (PC) chemoreceptors are specialized cells to detect changes in CO2, O2 and H+, and produce adjustments in ventilation and blood pressure via the central nervous system. Here we evaluate the action of purinergic signaling in areas with this property (RTN, C1, commNTS, RPA) during the cardiorespiratory responses elicited by activation of chemoreceptors, and a possible role of astrocytes. We found evidence that P2 receptors modulate CC responses in RTN, while P2Y1 and glutamate receptors modulate PC responses in C1, and that the purinergic signaling in the RPa and commNTS region does not contribute to CC responses. The pharmacological manipulation of the RTN astrocytes, but not commNTS or RPa, with fluorocitrate produces respiratory changes via P2 receptors. Our findings show the importance and contribute to discrimination of the mechanisms of purinergic signaling in the rostral ventrolateral medulla during CC and PC activation.

Dyslipidemia can be a comorbidity of both insulin-resistance and atherosclerosis. Hypertriglyceridemia is common in hyperglycemia and is associated with hypoalphalipoproteinemia (low HDL) and with altered nucleotide or purinergic signaling. We therefore hypothesized that extracellular nucleotides may affect hepatic lipoprotein metabolism. Our studies confirm this view and show that nucleotides regulate cellular proteolytic pathways in liver cells and thereby control lipoprotein secretion and their metabolism by hepatic lipase (HL). Treatment of liver cells with the nucleotide, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), stimulates VLDL-apoB100 and apoE secretion, but blocks HDL-apoA-I and HL secretion. ADP functions like a proteasomal inhibitor to block proteasomal degradation and stimulate apoB100 secretion. Blocking the proteosome is known to activate autophagic pathways. The nucleotide consequently stimulates autophagic degradation in liver cells and increases cellular levels of the autophagic proteins, LC3 and p62. Confocal studies show that ADP increases cellular LC3 levels and promotes co-localization of LC3 and apoA-I in an autophagosomal degradation compartment. ADP acts through the G-protein coupled receptor, P2Y13, to stimulate autophagy and block both HDL and HL secretion. Overexpression of P2Y13 increases cellular LC3 levels and blocks the induction of both HDL and HL secretion, while P2Y13 siRNA reduce LC3 protein levels and cause up to a ten-fold stimulation in HDL and HL secretion. P2Y13 gene expression regulates autophagy through the insulin receptor (IR-β). A reduction in P2Y13 expression increases the phosphorylation of IR-β and protein kinase B (Akt) >3-fold, while increasing P2Y13 expression inhibits the activation of IR-β and Akt. Experiments with epitope-labeled apoA-I and HL show that activation of purinergic pathways has no effect on the internalization and degradation of extracellular apoA-I and HL, which confirms the view that nucleotides primarily impact intracellular protein transport and degradation. In conclusion, elevated blood glucose levels may promote dyslipidemia by stimulating purinergic signaling through P2Y13 and IR-β and perturbing the intracellular degradation and secretion of both HDL and VLDL.

Hepatitis C is an infectious disease caused by Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and characterized by development of inflammation as well as fibrosis. On the other hand, the extracellular nucleotides and adenine nucleosides are important signaling molecules that can modulate inflammatory responses in platelets and lymphocytes. This study sought to determine the activities of ectoenzymes [ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase), ecto-5 -nucleotidase (E-5 -NT) and ecto-adenosine deaminase (E-ADA)] that metabolize nucleotides in platelets and lymphocytes and to evaluate cytokine levels of patients with HCV. Twenty five HCV patients and fifty healthy subjects (control group) were selected for this study. In lymphocytes, was observed a lower ATP hydrolysis (P<0.001), and higher ADP hydrolysis (P<0.001) and E- ADA activity (P<0.001) in HCV patients when compared to the control group. In addition, the results revealed a higher ATP and ADP hydrolysis by E-NTPDase and higher E-ADA activity in platelets of HCV patients when compared with the control group. Also, IL-4 and IL-10 were significantly (P<0.05) increased while IL-6 was decreased (P<0.05) in HCV patients. In conclusion, the results showed that the activities of E-NTPDase and E-ADA were altered in both lymphocytes and platelets of HCV patients. These alterations in enzymes activities may be possible regulatory mechanisms in an attempt to manage liver damage and ongoing inflammatory process. Furthermore, decreased IL-6 as well as increased IL-4 and IL-10 in HCV patients may suggest an antiinflammatory process and possible compensatory mechanisms in minimizing liver injury. / Hepatitis C is an infectious disease caused by Hepatitis C virus (HCV) and characterized by development of inflammation as well as fibrosis. On the other hand, the extracellular nucleotides and adenine nucleosides are important signaling molecules that can modulate inflammatory responses in platelets and lymphocytes. This study sought to determine the activities of ectoenzymes [ectonucleoside triphosphate diphosphohydrolase (E-NTPDase), ecto-5 -nucleotidase (E-5 -NT) and ecto-adenosine deaminase (E-ADA)] that metabolize nucleotides in platelets and lymphocytes and to evaluate cytokine levels of patients with HCV. Twenty five HCV patients and fifty healthy subjects (control group) were selected for this study. In lymphocytes, was observed a lower ATP hydrolysis (P<0.001), and higher ADP hydrolysis (P<0.001) and E- ADA activity (P<0.001) in HCV patients when compared to the control group. In addition, the results revealed a higher ATP and ADP hydrolysis by E-NTPDase and higher E-ADA activity in platelets of HCV patients when compared with the control group. Also, IL-4 and IL-10 were significantly (P<0.05) increased while IL-6 was decreased (P<0.05) in HCV patients. In conclusion, the results showed that the activities of E-NTPDase and E-ADA were altered in both lymphocytes and platelets of HCV patients. These alterations in enzymes activities may be possible regulatory mechanisms in an attempt to manage liver damage and ongoing inflammatory process. Furthermore, decreased IL-6 as well as increased IL-4 and IL-10 in HCV patients may suggest an antiinflammatory process and possible compensatory mechanisms in minimizing liver injury.

Quimioreceptores centrais (QC) e periféricos (QP) são células especializadas em detectar alterações de CO2, O2 e H+, e promover ajustes na ventilação e pressão arterial via sistema nervoso central. Avaliamos aqui a ação da sinalização purinérgica em áreas que apresentam essa propriedade (RTN, C1, NTScom e RPa) durante as respostas cardiorrespiratórias promovidas pela ativação dos quimiorreceptores, e a possível participação de astrócitos. Encontramos evidências que receptores P2 modulam a resposta de QC no RTN, enquanto que receptores P2Y1 e receptores glutamatérgicos, modulam a resposta de QP no C1, e que a sinalização purinérgica na região do NTScom ou na região RPa não contribui para resposta de QC. A manipulação farmacológica de astrócitos do RTN com fluorocitrato, mas não da região do NTScom e RPa, produz alterações respiratórias via receptores P2. Nossos achados evidenciam a importância e contribuem para descriminação dos mecanismos de ação da sinalização purinérgica na região bulbo ventrolateral rostral durante a ativação QC e QP. / Central (CC) and peripherals (PC) chemoreceptors are specialized cells to detect changes in CO2, O2 and H+, and produce adjustments in ventilation and blood pressure via the central nervous system. Here we evaluate the action of purinergic signaling in areas with this property (RTN, C1, commNTS, RPA) during the cardiorespiratory responses elicited by activation of chemoreceptors, and a possible role of astrocytes. We found evidence that P2 receptors modulate CC responses in RTN, while P2Y1 and glutamate receptors modulate PC responses in C1, and that the purinergic signaling in the RPa and commNTS region does not contribute to CC responses. The pharmacological manipulation of the RTN astrocytes, but not commNTS or RPa, with fluorocitrate produces respiratory changes via P2 receptors. Our findings show the importance and contribute to discrimination of the mechanisms of purinergic signaling in the rostral ventrolateral medulla during CC and PC activation.

Dyslipidemia can be a comorbidity of both insulin-resistance and atherosclerosis. Hypertriglyceridemia is common in hyperglycemia and is associated with hypoalphalipoproteinemia (low HDL) and with altered nucleotide or purinergic signaling. We therefore hypothesized that extracellular nucleotides may affect hepatic lipoprotein metabolism. Our studies confirm this view and show that nucleotides regulate cellular proteolytic pathways in liver cells and thereby control lipoprotein secretion and their metabolism by hepatic lipase (HL). Treatment of liver cells with the nucleotide, adenosine diphosphate (ADP), stimulates VLDL-apoB100 and apoE secretion, but blocks HDL-apoA-I and HL secretion. ADP functions like a proteasomal inhibitor to block proteasomal degradation and stimulate apoB100 secretion. Blocking the proteosome is known to activate autophagic pathways. The nucleotide consequently stimulates autophagic degradation in liver cells and increases cellular levels of the autophagic proteins, LC3 and p62. Confocal studies show that ADP increases cellular LC3 levels and promotes co-localization of LC3 and apoA-I in an autophagosomal degradation compartment. ADP acts through the G-protein coupled receptor, P2Y13, to stimulate autophagy and block both HDL and HL secretion. Overexpression of P2Y13 increases cellular LC3 levels and blocks the induction of both HDL and HL secretion, while P2Y13 siRNA reduce LC3 protein levels and cause up to a ten-fold stimulation in HDL and HL secretion. P2Y13 gene expression regulates autophagy through the insulin receptor (IR-β). A reduction in P2Y13 expression increases the phosphorylation of IR-β and protein kinase B (Akt) >3-fold, while increasing P2Y13 expression inhibits the activation of IR-β and Akt. Experiments with epitope-labeled apoA-I and HL show that activation of purinergic pathways has no effect on the internalization and degradation of extracellular apoA-I and HL, which confirms the view that nucleotides primarily impact intracellular protein transport and degradation. In conclusion, elevated blood glucose levels may promote dyslipidemia by stimulating purinergic signaling through P2Y13 and IR-β and perturbing the intracellular degradation and secretion of both HDL and VLDL.

Der ATP-getriggerte Ionenkanal P2X7 ist als purinerger Oberflächenrezeptor besonders auf Zellen des Immunsystems und auf Gliazellen im Nervensystem exprimiert. Seine Aktivierung führt zur Freisetzung proinflammatorischer Zytokine, zur Bildung reaktiver Sauerstoffspezies sowie zu einer Beeinflussung des Zellzyklus. Zwar konnte eine Beteiligung des Rezeptors an verschiedenen entzündlichen und degenerativen Erkrankungen nachgewiesen werden, allerdings bestehen nach wie vor viele Unstimmigkeiten darüber, ob P2X7 im Einzelfall protektiv oder schadend wirkt. Eine therapeutische Modulation des Rezeptors gestaltet sich daher bis heute schwierig. Weiterhin wurde trotz intensiver Bemühungen um selektive, potente P2X7-Modulatoren bisher kein Wirkstoff über Phase-II-Studien hinaus entwickelt. Der erste Teil der Arbeit beschreibt eine Studie zur Identifikation neuer P2X7-Modulatoren und deren Charakterisierung hinsichtlich Potenz, Bindeverhalten und Speziesspezifität. Ziel dieser Studie war es, die Basis für die Entwicklung möglicher neuer Therapeutika zu legen, für die ein hoher Bedarf besteht. Im zweiten Teil der Arbeit wurde die Beteiligung des P2X7-Rezeptors an den pathophysiologischen Vorgängen nach einem Hirninfarkt untersucht. Besondere Aufmerksamkeit lag dabei auf dem Einfluss, den der Rezeptor auf die Bildung eines begleitenden, oftmals fatalen Hirnödems ausübt. In einer Wirkstoffbibliothek enthaltene zugelassene Pharmaka und Naturstoffe wurden auf ihre Wirksamkeit am rekombinant exprimierten humanen P2X7-Rezeptor (hP2X7) getestet. Dazu wurde gemessen, inwiefern diese Wirkstoffe den P2X7-vermittelten Ca2+-Einstrom modulieren können. Für potenziell selektive Substanzen wurden Konzentrations-Wirkungs-Kurven erstellt. Für den potenten Inhibitor Tanshinon II A-Sulfonat (TIIAS) und den chemisch verwandten Wirkstoff Tanshinon II A (TIIA) erfolgte diese Untersuchung auch an den rekombinant exprimierten P2X7-Rezeptoren von Maus (mP2X7) und Ratte (rP2X7). Weiterhin erfolgte eine detaillierte, auf elektrophysiologischen Untersuchungen basierende Darstellung der pharmakodynamischen Eigenschaften von TIIAS. Die Selektivität der Wirkung gegenüber P2X2 und P2X4 wurde mithilfe entsprechender Zelllinien geprüft. Die Wirkung modulierender Pharmaka am nativen Rezeptor wurde in humanen, aus peripheren Blutmonozyten gereiften Makrophagen überprüft, wozu neben der Darstellung des Ca2+-Einstroms auch ein IL-1β-ELISA eingesetzt wurde. In allen Experimenten wurde die Beteiligung von P2X7 über bekannte Antagonisten verifiziert. Um zu klären, inwiefern P2X7 die pathophysiologischen Abläufe nach Hirninfarkt beeinflusst, wurde bei 20 P2X7-defizienten Mäusen (P2X7-/-) und bei 22 zugehörigen Wildtyp-Mäusen (WT) eine zerebrale Ischämie induziert, indem die mittlere Zerebralarterie mit einem dünnen Faden für 60 Minuten transient verschlossen wurde (middle cerebral artery occlusion, MCAO). In den folgenden 72 Stunden wurde über klinische Methoden und Magnetresonanzuntersuchungen die Entwicklung neurologischer Defizite, der Infarktgröße und des begleitenden Hirnödems evaluiert. Nach schmerzloser Tötung und Hirnentnahme wurden immunhistologisch die Aktivierung und Verteilung von Mikroglia und Astrozyten sowie der Zustand des Gefäßendothels untersucht. Sham-operierte Tiere dienten in allen Experimenten als Kontrollen. TIIAS hemmte hP2X7 mit einer IC50 von 4.3 μM, während die Potenz an mP2X7 geringer war und rP2X7 kaum geblockt wurde. TIIA modulierte P2X7 nicht. TIIAS hemmte als allosterischer Antagonist die Öffnung des Ionenkanals und band vermutlich an eine intrazelluläre Bindestelle. Die Wirkung von TIIAS wurde in humanen Makrophagen bestätigt, in denen der Wirkstoff den Ioneneinstrom und die IL-1β-Freisetzung hemmte. Obwohl die neurologische Untersuchung von P2X7-/-- und WT-Mäusen nach MCAO keine signifikanten Unterschiede ergab, zeigte sich in der bildgebenden Diagnostik, dass P2X7-/--Mäuse binnen 24 Stunden nach der OP ein signifikant stärkeres Hirnödem entwickelten, welches nicht durch Unterschiede in der Infarktgröße bedingt war. Der Infarkt führte in beiden Gruppen zu einer Gliaaktivierung, die im Fall der Mikroglia in Abwesenheit von P2X7 allerdings reduziert war. Differenzen hinsichtlich der Aktivierung von Astrozyten und der Expression von Laminin im Kapillarendothel wurden nicht festgestellt. Im Gegensatz zu TIIA, das häufig als gleichwertiger Wirkstoff eingesetzt wird, blockt TIIAS hP2X7 speziesspezifisch mit einer hohen Potenz. Maus und Ratte scheiden aufgrund der geringen Wirkung von TIIAS leider als Tiermodelle aus, um die Wirkung von TIIAS in vivo zu prüfen. Weitere Arbeiten sind notwendig, um die Potenz von TIIAS in anderen Spezies zu evaluieren oder Alternativen zum Tierversuch zu finden und eine mögliche therapeutische Anwendung bei Erkrankungen mit P2X7-Beteiligung zu testen. P2X7 beeinflusst die pathophysiologischen Vorgänge nach einem Hirninfarkt und begrenzt die Entwicklung eines zytotoxischen Hirnödems, nicht aber die des vasogenen Hirnödems, das sich zeitversetzt einstellt. Eine mögliche Erklärung für diesen Sachverhalt bieten die unterschiedlichen Funktionen, die Gliazellen zu verschiedenen Zeitpunkten nach zerebraler Ischämie übernehmen. Unsere Ergebnisse deuten auch darauf hin, dass verschiedene Tiermodelle des zerebralen Infarkts nicht in allen Punkten vergleichbar sind.:Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Purinerge Signaltransduktion.......................................................................... 1 1.2 P2X-Rezeptoren.............................................................................................. 2 1.3 Pharmakologie des P2X7-Rezeptors............................................................... 3 1.4 Physiologische und pathophysiologische Bedeutung des P2X7-Rezeptor...... 5 1.5 Gegenstand dieser Arbeit............................................................................... 7 2 Veröffentlichungen............................................................................................. 9 2.1 Erste Publikation............................................................................................. 9 2.1.1 Tanshinone II A sulfonate, but not tanshinone II A, acts as potent negative allosteric modulator of the human purinergic receptor P2X7................................. 9 2.1.2 Ergänzende Materialien zur ersten Publikation.......................................... 22 2.2 Zweite Publikation......................................................................................... 30 2.2.1 Lack of functional P2X7 receptor aggravates brain edema development after middle cerebral artery................................................................................. 30 2.2.2 Ergänzende Materialien zur zweiten Publikation......................................... 42 2.2.3 Erratum to: Lack of functional P2X7 receptor aggravates brain edema development after middle cerebral artery occlusion............................................ 46 3 Diskussion........................................................................................................ 49 4 Zusammenfassung........................................................................................... 55 5 Summary.......................................................................................................... 57 6 Literaturverzeichnis.......................................................................................... 59 7 Danksagung..................................................................................................... 66 / ATP-gated ion channel P2X7 is a purinergic cell surface receptor which is mainly expressed on immune and glia cell. Upon activation of P2X7, proinflammatory cytokines are released, reactive oxygen species are generated and the cell cycle may be altered. In this regard, it has been shown that P2X7 plays a role in diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease and multiple sclerosis. However, results regarding protective or detrimental effects mediated by P2X7 under particular conditions are often inconsistent. Thus, up to now, any therapeutic modulation of the receptor remains a challenge. Although intensive research has been conducted to find selective, potent P2X7-modulators, no active compound has been developed beyond phase II clinical trials. The first part of this work describes a study realized to identify new P2X7 modulators and to characterize them in terms of pharmacodynamic properties like potency and species specificity. This study was aimed at providing a basis for the development of new therapeutic agents, which are urgently needed. During the second part of this work, the involvement of P2X7 in pathophysiological processes after cerebral infarction was examined. Particular attention was paid to the influence of the receptor on the development of an accompanying and often fatal brain edema. A compound library containing approved drugs and natural compounds was screened for modulators of the recombinantly expressed human P2X7 receptor (hP2X7). Therefor, their effect on P2X7-mediated Ca2+ influx was evaluated. Concentration-response-curves were established for potentially selective compounds. Tanshinone II A sulfonate (TIIAS) turned out to be a potent inhibitor of P2X7. Both TIIAS and tanshinone II A (TIIA), the natural compound TIIAS has been derived from, were also tested on recombinantly expressed mouse and rat P2X7 (mP2X7 and rP2X7, respectively). Furthermore, electrophysiological assays were conducted for a detailed characterization of mechanisms of P2X7 inhibition. Antagonist selectivity was revised using cell lines expressing purinergic receptors P2X2 and P2X4. Human monocyte-derived macrophages were used in fluorometric calcium and dye-uptake assays as well as an IL-1ß ELISA to evaluate the effects of modulating compounds on native P2X7. In all experiments, involvement of P2X7 was verified using established P2X7 antagonists. In order to evaluate whether modulation of P2X7 may affect the outcome after cerebral infarction, cerebral ischemia was induced in 20 P2X7-deficient mice (P2X7-/-) and 22 mice of their corresponding wild type (WT) by transiently occluding their middle cerebral artery for 60 minutes with a thin filament (middle cerebral artery occlusion, MCAO). During 72 hours following surgery, neurological deficits, infarct size and edema development were monitored, applying clinical examinations and magnetic resonance measurements. After humane killing and brain removal, different antibodies were used in order to evaluate the distribution and activation state of microglia and astrocytes as well as the condition of the vascular endothelium. Sham-operated animals were used as negative controls in all experiments. TIIAS blocked hP2X7 with an IC50 of 4.3 μM, whereas it proved to be less potent at mP2X7 and poorly modulated rP2X7. TIIA did not modulate P2X7. TIIAS acted as an allosteric antagonist and reduced the opening of the ion channel; it presumably bound to an intracellular binding site. The effect of TIIAS could be confirmed in human macrophages. In these cells, TIIAS inhibited the ATP-induced Ca2+ entry, dye-uptake and release of IL-1β. Although neurological examinations did not reveal significant differences between P2X7-/- and WT mice that underwent MCAO, diagnostic imaging revealed that P2X7-/- mice developed significantly more severe brain edema within 24 hours after surgery, a development that was not due to differences in infarct sizes. Both groups displayed clear signs of activation of glia cells, but only microglia activation was attenuated in the absence of P2X7. Differences regarding the activation state of astrocytes or the expression of laminin by capillary endothelial cells could not be detected. TIIAS species specifically blocks hP2X7 with a high potency. TIIA does not convey this effect although both compounds are frequently used interchangeably. Due to the low potency TIIAS displays at mP2X7 and rP2X7, these species unfortunately cannot be used as animal models to evaluate the drug’s effect in vivo. Further research is necessary to evaluate the potency of TIIAS at other species’ P2X7 receptors or to find alternativespurinerge Signaltransduktion, P2X7, Tanshinon II A-Sulfonat, zerebrale Ischämie, Hirnödem to animal testing in order to study possible therapeutic applications of TIIAS in P2X7-related diseases. P2X7 does affect pathophysiological events following cerebral ischemia and restricts cytotoxic brain edema development, but does not limit vasogenic cerebral edema formation, which develops at a later stage of the disease. The different functions fulfilled by glia cells at distinct points in time after infarction may provide an explanation for this interesting fact. The results presented also imply that diverse animal models of cerebral ischemia may not be entirely comparable due to differences regarding the pathogenesis of brain edema.:Inhaltsverzeichnis 1 Einleitung........................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Purinerge Signaltransduktion.......................................................................... 1 1.2 P2X-Rezeptoren.............................................................................................. 2 1.3 Pharmakologie des P2X7-Rezeptors............................................................... 3 1.4 Physiologische und pathophysiologische Bedeutung des P2X7-Rezeptor...... 5 1.5 Gegenstand dieser Arbeit............................................................................... 7 2 Veröffentlichungen............................................................................................. 9 2.1 Erste Publikation............................................................................................. 9 2.1.1 Tanshinone II A sulfonate, but not tanshinone II A, acts as potent negative allosteric modulator of the human purinergic receptor P2X7................................. 9 2.1.2 Ergänzende Materialien zur ersten Publikation.......................................... 22 2.2 Zweite Publikation......................................................................................... 30 2.2.1 Lack of functional P2X7 receptor aggravates brain edema development after middle cerebral artery................................................................................. 30 2.2.2 Ergänzende Materialien zur zweiten Publikation......................................... 42 2.2.3 Erratum to: Lack of functional P2X7 receptor aggravates brain edema development after middle cerebral artery occlusion............................................ 46 3 Diskussion........................................................................................................ 49 4 Zusammenfassung........................................................................................... 55 5 Summary.......................................................................................................... 57 6 Literaturverzeichnis.......................................................................................... 59 7 Danksagung..................................................................................................... 66

L’ATP est bien connue pour son rôle de transporteur d'énergie à l’intérieur des cellules, mais en dehors de la cellule, elle agit en tant que molécule de signalisation extracellulaire. En se liant aux récepteurs purinergiques, l’ATP extracellulaire amorce la signalisation purinergique afin de réguler certains processus physiologiques et pathophysiologiques. Dans les poumons, l’ATP stimule la sécrétion de surfactant et promeut la clairance mucociliaire. Compte tenu du rôle critique de l’ATP extracellulaire dans les poumons, il est important de comprendre le mécanisme du relargage d’ATP cellulaire — la première étape de la signalisation purinergique. Parce que les forces mécaniques constituent le déclencheur principal du relargage d’ATP, cette thèse a pour but d’investiguer le(s) mécanisme(s) physiologique(s) et les sources cellulaires d’un tel relargage d’ATP mécanosensible. Cet ouvrage est divisé en trois parties : 1) Pour étudier les caractéristiques spatiales et temporelles du relargage d’ATP, j’ai développé une technique d’imagerie hautement sensible basée sur la bioluminescence de la luciférine-luciférase couplée avec un système de lentilles à grand champ de vision (WFOV, wide field of view) optimisant l’apport de lumière. Pour évaluer notre approche d’imagerie, j’ai soumis des cellules A549, dérivées d’un adénocarcinome pulmonaire humain, à un étirement ou un choc hypotonique de 50% pour déclencher un relargage d’ATP. J’ai démontré que notre technique nous permet de quantifier précisément la quantité et le taux (ou l’efflux) d’ATP s’échappant des cellules. Le WFOV constitue un outil essentiel utilisé dans les études décrites dans cette thèse pour déterminer le mécanisme et la source cellulaire du relargage d’ATP dans l’alvéole. 2) Afin d’examiner le mécanisme physiologique du relargage d’ATP induit par l’étirement dans les cellulaires alvéolaires primaires, j’ai déterminé les contributions individuelles des cellules alvéolaires de type 1 (AT1) en comparaison des cellules alvéolaires de type 2 (AT2). Pour ce faire, des cellules AT2 fraîchement isolées de poumons de rats ont été ensemencées sur une chambre flexible en silicone et cultivées jusqu’à sept jours, ce qui permettait aux cellules AT2 de se transdifférencier progressivement en cellules semblables aux cellules AT1. Le ratio des cellules alvéolaires (AT2:AT1), étant de 4:1 au jour 3, est devenu 1:4 au jour 7. La quantité d'ATP libérée diminuait avec le nombre décroissant de cellules AT2, les impliquant en tant que principale source pour le relargage d’ATP en réponse à un étirement. Alors que les modulateurs pharmacologiques des canaux d’ATP, carbenoxolone et probénécide, ne diminuaient pas la quantité d’ATP libérée, le BAPTA, un chélateur de calcium intracellulaire ([Ca2+]i), l’a significativement réduite. De même, ces trois modulateurs exercent des effets similaires sur les réponses calciques intracellulaires mesurées par le Fura-2, suggérant une connexion entre le relargage d’ATP et les niveaux de [Ca2+]i. 3) Pour explorer le rôle qu’ont les propriétés viscoélastiques de la membrane dans le relargage d’ATP mécanosensible, j’ai démontré qu’une déformation de 30% induisait un relargage d’ATP transitoire qui était accompagné d’une absorption d’iodure de propidium (PI, propidium iodide) chez des cellules AT2. Ceci est cohérent avec une rupture membranaire transitoire induite par une déformation, assez large pour le passage d’ATP et de PI. L’efflux d’ATP augmente aussi selon le taux de déformation, et la durée de déformation prolonge la demi-vie du relargage d’ATP. Donc, ces résultats fournissent des indices sur la manière dont l’étirement de la membrane viscoélastique peut mener au relargage d’ATP par un mécanisme alternatif impliquant une mécanoporation de la membrane cellulaire. Dans l’ensemble, ces résultats démontrent que le relargage d’ATP ne se produit pas à travers les canaux conduisant l’ATP mais plutôt par une mécanoporation transitoire de la membrane. D’autres études sur les dommages membranaires sont nécessaires pour mieux comprendre sa contribution dans le relargage d’ATP mécanosensible et les signaux de [Ca2+]i. De telles études élucideront la signalisation purinergique dans les organes qui sont constamment exposés à des contraintes physiques. Ceci pourrait suggérer des cibles/approches thérapeutiques pour moduler les impacts négatifs d’un relargage d’ATP excessif observés lors de certaines conditions pathologiques, telles que les lésions pulmonaires induites par la ventilation mécanique. / ATP is widely known to be an energy carrier within cells, but outside of the cell, it acts as an extracellular signaling molecule. Upon binding to purinergic receptors, extracellular ATP initiates the purinergic signaling to regulate certain physiological and pathophysiological processes. In the lungs, ATP stimulates surfactant secretion and promotes mucociliary clearance. Given the critical role of extracellular ATP in the lungs, it is important to understand the mechanism of cellular ATP release — the first step of purinergic signaling. Because mechanical forces constitute the primary trigger of ATP release, this thesis aims to investigate the physiological mechanism(s) and cellular sources of such mechanosensitive ATP release. This work is divided into three parts: 1) To study the spatial and temporal characteristics of ATP release, I developed a highly sensitive imaging technique based on luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence coupled with a custom-designed lens system, which combined a wide field of view (WFOV) and high light-gathering power. To evaluate our imaging approach, I subjected A549 cells, derived from human lung adenocarcinoma, to stretch or 50% hypotonic shock to trigger ATP release. I demonstrated that our technique allows us to precisely quantify the amount and the rate (or efflux) of ATP escaping from cells. The WFOV constitutes an essential tool used in the studies described in this thesis to determine the mechanism and cellular source of ATP release in the alveolus. 2) To examine the physiological mechanism of stretch-induced ATP release in primary alveolar cells, I determined the individual contributions of alveolar type 1 (AT1) in comparison with alveolar type 2 (AT2) cells. To this end, freshly isolated AT2 cells from rat lungs were seeded on a flexible silicone chamber and were cultured for up to seven days, which allowed AT2 cells to progressively transdifferentiate into AT1-like cells. The ratio of alveolar cells (AT2:AT1), being 4:1 on day 3, became 1:4 on day 7. The quantity of released ATP decreased with the decreasing numbers of AT2 cells, implicating them as the main source of ATP release in response to stretch. While pharmacological ATP channel modulators, carbenoxolone and probenecid, did not diminish the amount of ATP release, BAPTA, an intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) chelator, significantly reduced it. Likewise, these three modulators had similar effects on intracellular calcium responses measured by Fura-2, suggesting a connection between ATP release and [Ca2+]i levels. 3) To explore the role of membrane viscoelastic properties in mechanosensitive ATP release, I demonstrated that a 30% strain induced transient ATP release that was accompanied by uptake of propidium iodide (PI) in AT2 cells. This is consistent with a strain-induced transient membrane rupture, big enough for the passage of ATP and PI. ATP efflux also increases with strain rate, and hold time prolongs the half-life of ATP release. Thus, these results provide clues on how stretching of the viscoelastic membrane may lead to ATP release via an alternate mechanism involving transient mechanoporation of the cell membrane. Overall, these findings demonstrate that stretch-induced ATP release does not occur through ATP-conducting channels but rather a transient membrane mechanoporation. Further studies on membrane injury induced by strain are needed to better understand its contribution to mechanosensitive ATP release and [Ca2+]i signaling. Such studies will elucidate purinergic signaling in organs that are constantly exposed to physical stresses. This could suggest novel therapeutic targets/approach to modulate the negative impacts of excessive ATP release observed under certain pathological conditions, such as ventilator-induced lung injury.

<div>Cancer is responsible for the second highest cause of death in the United States, and lung cancer accounts for 13% of new cancer diagnoses, with the highest rate of cancer death at 24%. Almost 85% of these cases represent non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), which includes lung adenocarcinoma, the most common NSCLC subtype. Traditional cancer treatments often only temporarily stop the spread of the disease, but immunotherapies, which are becoming a standard of care, are much more promising. Natural killer (NK) cells are powerful effectors of innate immunity, and genetically engineered NK cells as immunotherapies have had encouraging clinical responses in the treatment of various cancers. However, more progress is needed for solid tumor treatment, especially for lung adenocarcinoma. The activation of cancer-associated ectoenzymes, CD39 and CD73 catalyze the phosphorylation of ATP to AMP to produce extracellular adenosine (ADO), which is a highly immunosuppressive mechanism contributing to the pathogenesis of solid tumors. Understanding adenosine effects on NK cells will help develop more robust immunotherapeutic treatments to improve cytotoxicity against solid tumors. Here, we established that tumor microenvironment ADO results in impaired metabolic and anti-tumor functions of cytokine-primed NK cells. Specifically, peripheral blood-derived NK cells stimulated with IL-2, IL-15, or a combination of IL-12 and IL-15 showed suppressed anti-tumor immunity due to ADO. This was observed by the downregulation of activation receptor expression, cytotoxicity inhibition, impairment of metabolic activity, and alterations in gene expression. To target ADO-producing CD73 on cancer cells, we redirected NK cells by fusing CD73 ScFv with intracellular and transmembrane regions of NK cell specific signaling components derived from FCyRIIIa (CD16). Engineered NK cells were shown to be cytotoxic against lung adenocarcinoma <i>in vitro</i> and impede tumor growth in a lung adenocarcinoma mouse model <i>in vivo</i>. Engineered cells also had higher levels of degranulation and cytokine release, as well as more infiltration into tumors and longer survival time in mice. In summary, the microenvironment of solid tumors is highly immunosupressive, and redirecting NK cell function using a NK-specific anti-CD73 targeting construct will help to promote anti-tumor immunity and</div><div>inhibit cancer growth for a potentially powerful new immunotherapy against solid tumors.</div>