Solar and wind generation are one of the most rapidly growing renewable energy sources, and is regarded as an appealing alternative to conventional power generated from fossil fuel. This is leading to significant levels of distributed renewable generation being installed on distribution circuits. Although renewable generation brings many advantages, circuit problems are created due to its intermittency, and overcoming these problems is a key challenge to achieving high penetration. It is necessary for utilities to understand the impacts of Photovoltaic (PV) generation on distribution circuits and operations. An impact study is intended to quantify the extent of the issues, discover any problems, and investigate alternative solutions. In this manner, system wide and local impact study are proposed in the dissertation. 1) System wide impact study This study considers system effects due to the addition of Plug-in Hybrid Vehicles (PHEV) and Distributed Energy Resource (DER) generation. The DER and PHEV are considered with energy storage technology applied to the residential distribution system load. Two future year scenarios are considered, 2020 and 2030. The models used are of real distribution circuits located near Detroit, Michigan, and every customer load on the circuit and type of customer are modeled. Monte Carlo simulations are used to randomly select customers that receive PHEV, DER, and/or storage systems. The Monte Carlo simulations provide not only the expected average result, but also its uncertainty. 2) Local impact study Analysis of high PV penetration in distribution circuits using both steady-state and quasi steady-state impact studies are presented. The steady-state analysis evaluates impacts on the distribution circuit by comparing conditions before and after extreme changes in PV generation at three extreme circuit conditions, maximum load, maximum PV generation, and when the difference between the PV generation and the circuit load is a maximum. The quasi steady-state study consists of a series of steady-state impact studies performed at evenly spaced time points for evaluating the spectrum of impacts between the extreme impacts. Results addressing the impacts of cloud cover and various power factor control strategies are presented. PV penetration levels are limited and depend upon PV generation control strategies and the circuit design and loading. There are tradeoffs in PV generation control concerning circuit voltage variations, circuit losses, and the motion of automated utility control devices. The steady state and quasi steady-state impact studies provide information that is helpful in evaluating the effect of PV generation on distribution circuits, including circuit problems that result from the PV generation. In order to fully benefit from wind power, accurate wind power forecasting is an essential tool in addressing this challenge. This has motivated researchers to develop better forecast of the wind resources and the resulting power. As a solution for wind generation, frequency domain approach is proposed to characterize and analyze wind speed patterns in the dissertation. 3) Frequency Domain Approach This study introduces the frequency domain approach to characterize and analyze wind speed patterns. It first presents the technique of and the prerequisite conditions for the frequency domain approach. Three years of wind speed data at 10 different locations have been used. This chapter demonstrates that wind speed patterns during different times and at different locations can be well characterized by using the frequency domain approach with its compact and structured format. We also perform analysis using the characterized dataset. It affirms that the frequency domain approach is a useful indicator for understanding the characteristics of wind speed patterns and can express the information with superior accuracy. Among the various technical challenges under high PV penetration, voltage rise problems caused by reverse power flows are one of the foremost concerns. The voltage rises due to the PV generation. Furthermore, the need to limit the voltage rise problem limits PV generators from injecting more active power into the distribution network. This can be one of the obstacles to high penetration of PVs into circuits. As a solution for solar generation, coordinated control of automated devices and PV is proposed in the dissertation. 4) Coordinated Automated Device and PV Control A coordinating, model-centric control strategy for mitigating voltage rise problems due to PV penetration into power distribution circuits is presented. The coordinating control objective is to maintain an optimum circuit voltage distribution and voltage schedule, where the optimum circuit operation is determined without PV generation on the circuit. In determining the optimum circuit voltage distribution and voltage schedule, the control strategy schedules utility controls, such as switched capacitor banks and voltage regulators, separate from PV inverter controls. Optimization addresses minimizing circuit losses and motion of utility controls. The coordinating control action provides control setpoints to the PV inverters that are a function of the circuit loading or time-of-day and also the location of the PV inverter. Three PV penetration scenarios are considered, 10%, 20%, and 30%. Baselines with and without coordinating controls for circuit performance without PV generation are established, and these baselines are compared against the three PV penetration scenarios with and without coordinating control. Simulation results are compared and differences in voltage variations and circuit losses are considered along with differences in utility control motion. Results show that the coordinating control can solve the voltage rise problem while minimizing circuit losses and reducing utility control motion. The coordinating control will work with existing PV inverter controls that accept control setpoints without having to modify the inverter controls. 5) Coordinated Local and Centralized PV Control Existing distribution systems and their associated controls have been around for decades. Most distribution circuits have capacity to accommodate some level of PV generation, but the question is how much can they handle without creating problems. It proposes a Configurable, Hierarchical, Model-based, Scheduling Control (CHMSC) of automated utility control devices and photovoltaic (PV) generators. In the study here the automated control devices are assumed to be owned by the utility and the PV generators and PV generator controls by another party. The CHMSC, which exists in a hierarchical control architecture that is failure tolerant, strives to maintain the voltage level that existed before introducing the PV into the circuit while minimizing the circuit loss and reducing the motion of the automated control devices. This is accomplished using prioritized objectives. The CHMSC sends control signals to the local controllers of the automated control devices and PV controllers. To evaluate the performance of the CHMSC, increasing PV levels of adoption are analyzed in a model of an actual circuit that has significant existing PV penetration and automated voltage control devices. The CHMSC control performance is compared with that of existing, local control. Simulation results presented demonstrate that the CHMSC algorithm results in better voltage control, lower losses, and reduced automated control device motion, especially as the penetration level of PV increases. / Ph. D.

Yes / In order to improve the performance of the reverse osmosis (RO) desalination plant powered by photovoltaic (PV), two cooling systems were proposed in this study to cool the PV and preheating the RO feed water as well. In the cooling design (1), the cooling fluid flows in direct contact with the back surface of the PV through channels of half circular cross-sections. While in the design (2), it flows through channels of squar cross-sections fixed on the PV back surface. Two nano-fluids were also tested as cooling fluid: H2O/CuO and H2O/Al2O3, in addition to distilled water for the purpose of comparison. The effect of changing the weight concentration of the nano-fluid (0.05, 0.1, and 0.15%) on the PV performance was also investigated. The results showed that the PV integrated with the cooling design (1) achieves better performance compared to design (2) at all studied cooling fluids. The improvements in the electric efficiency of the PV integrated with design (1) reached 39.5, 34.8 and 27.3 % when CuO and Al2O3 nano-fluids and distilled water were used as cooling fluid, respectively, compared to the uncooled PV. Based on the obtained experimental results, the PV integrated with design (1) was selected to power the RO with H2O/CuO nano-fluid of weight concentration 0.15% and flow rate 0.15 kg/s being used as the coolant. The RO powered by the improved PV was tested at different salinities of brackish water when the preheating technique was implemented. The results showed that the proposed PV-RO desalination system produces 366 l/day when brackish water of salinity 3000 ppm was used.

Despite the vast solar potential in both Mali and Senegal, the electricity access in both countries remains one of the lowest in the world. The main problem is represented by the disparity between rural and urban settlements. In Senegal, the electricity access for rural areas was lower than 50%, while in Mali was around 35%. Although the grid represents and will still represent the main driver to ensure electricity access, solar off-grid technologies can help reach rural communities living far from the grid. This study used a GIS-based approach to study electricity models for Senegal and Mali. This has been done in order to integrate physical geographical constraints like GHI, slope and grid infrastructure, and socio-demographical constraints like population density, and distance of rural settlements from the grid. The modeling tool OnSSET together with the QGIS mapping tool is used in this thesis.To achieve future electricity targets, the modeling period of this study has been set to 2020-2030. Under this study for both countries, two scenarios have been analyzed. A sensitivity analysis will help to analyze the influence of the demand level and the grid’s generation price on the results of these scenarios. For Mali, an optimistic scenario considering a 100% electrification rate by 2030, with a reliable grid and a low grid electrification price is designed. A second scenario follows an opposite approach where only 70% will have access to electricity, mainly due to an inadequate grid state. For both scenarios, the results show that the population connected to the grid will be between 70% and 60%. The total investment needed to reach universal access in Mali is between $3.7 and $3.2 billion. The highest share of this investment will be dedicated to the implementation and maintenance of the grid, between $2 and $1.6 billion. Stand-Alone and mini-grid PV will contribute to bringing electricity to 10 to 20% of the population. For Senegal, an optimistic scenario considers a really good grid state and a 100% electrification rate. A second pessimistic scenario considers an inadequate state of the grid, with an electricity access level of 90%. The results show that the population connected to the grid will be between 80% and 70%. The investment required to reach universal access by 2030 will be between $2.3 and $1.9 billion. Most of this investment will be dedicated to the maintenance and implementation of the grid. For Senegal stand-alone, PV mini-grids and hydro-mini-grids will bring electricity to between 6 and 10% of the population. / Trots den enorma solpotential som finns i både Mali och Senegal är tillgången till elektricitet i de båda länderna fortfarande en av de lägsta i världen. Det största problemet representeras av skillnaden mellan landsbygd och tätort. I Senegal var eltillgången för landsbygdsområden lägre än 50%, medan den i Mali var omkring 35%. Även om elnätet representerar och fortsatt kommer att representera den främsta drivkraften för att säkerställa tillgång till elektricitet, kan solteknik utanför elnätet bidra till att nå landsbygdssamhällen som är belägna långt från elnätet. Denna studie använde en GIS-baserad metod för att studera elmodeller för Senegal och Mali. Detta har gjorts för att integrera fysiska geografiska begränsningar som GHI (global horisontal solstrålning), lutning och nätinfrastruktur, samt sociodemografiska begränsningar som befolkningstäthet och avståndet mellan bebyggelse på landsbygden från elnätet. Modelleringsverktyget OnSSET tillsammans med kartläggningsverktyget QGIS används i denna avhandling. För att nå framtida elmål har modellperioden för denna studie satts till år 2020-2030. Under denna studieperiod har två scenarier analyserats för båda länderna. En känslighetsanalys kommer att hjälpa till att analysera påverkan av efterfrågenivån och elnätets produktionspris på resultaten av dessa scenarier. För Mali är ett optimistiskt scenario designat, i betraktande av en 100% elektrifieringsgrad till år 2030, med ett tillförlitligt elnät och ett lågt nätelektrifieringspris. I ett andra scenario studeras ett motsatt tillvägagångssätt där endast 70% kommer att ha tillgång till el, främst på grund av ett otillräckligt nättillstånd. För de båda scenarierna visar resultaten att befolkningen som är ansluten till nätet kommer att vara mellan 60% och 70%. Den totala investeringen som krävs för att nå universell tillgång i Mali är mellan 3,2 och 3,7 miljarder dollar. Den största andelen av denna investering kommer att ägnas åt en implementering och ett underhåll av elnätet, vilket är mellan 1,6 och 2 miljarder USD. Fristående elsystem och PV-mininät kommer att bidra till att få el till 10-20% av befolkningen. För Senegal betraktas ett optimistiskt scenario med ett väldigt bra nättillstånd och en 100% elektrifieringsgrad. I ett andra, pessimistiskt scenario, betraktas ett otillräckligt tillstånd av elnätet, med en eltillgångsnivå på 90%. Resultaten visar att befolkningen som är ansluten till elnätet kommer att vara mellan 80% och 70%. Investeringen som krävs för att nå universell tillgång till år 2030 kommer att vara mellan 1,9 och 2,3 miljarder dollar. Det mesta av denna investering kommer att tillägna underhåll och implementering av elnätet. För Senegal kommer fristående elsystem, PV-mininät och hydro-mininät att ge el till mellan 6-10% av befolkningen.

A crucial challenge introduced by the decentralized installations of photovoltaic (PV) systems in the residential sector, is the mismatch between PV electricity generation and the load curve for energy consumption. To overcome this incompatibility between production and consumption, energy storage and demand response are seen as effective solutions. Smart meters and the installation of intelligent smart appliances in homes have paved the way for efficient energy consumption monitoring and active household load control in the residential sector.  The aim of the thesis work is to develop a dynamic energy management algorithm tailored to optimize the energy consumption pattern of controllable household assets to maximize PV selfconsumption. A rolling horizon algorithm based dynamic model was designed using mixedinteger linear programming (MILP) and later compared with the baseline model to understand the real-time operational benefits of the rolling horizon approach.  Analyzing device scheduling patterns based on the feed-in-tariff showed considerable differences in the scheduling approach for both optimization models. A comparative analysis was conducted to understand the system benefits offered by both optimization models under different feed-in-tariff structures. Higher self-consumption rates were achieved through annual scheduling approach, but it does not reflect the real-time operation of the systems in the household. A rolling horizon optimization reflects the real-time operation of the energy system and has a lower self-consumption rate due to a limited optimization horizon. The method indicates the significant potential of self-consumption specially in lieu of decreasing feed-in tariffs. / En viktig utmaning som de decentraliserade installationerna av solcellssystem i bostadssektorn innebär är att elproduktionen från solcellerna inte stämmer överens med belastningskurvan för energiförbrukningen. För att komma till rätta med denna oförenlighet mellan produktion och konsumtion ses energilagring och efterfrågeflexibilitet som effektiva lösningar. Smarta mätare och installation av intelligenta smarta apparater i hemmen har banat väg för effektiv övervakning av energiförbrukningen och aktiv styrning av hushållens belastning i bostadssektorn.  Syftet med avhandlingen är att utveckla en dynamisk energihanteringsalgoritm som är skräddarsydd för att optimera energiförbrukningsmönstret för kontrollerbara hushållstillgångar för att maximera självförbrukningen av solceller. En dynamisk modell baserad på en algoritm med rullande horisont utformades med hjälp av blandad linjär programmering (MILP) och jämfördes senare med basmodellen för att förstå de operativa realtidsfördelarna med metoden med rullande horisont. Analysen av schemaläggningsmönster för enheter baserat på inmatningstariffen visade att det fanns betydande skillnader i schemaläggningsmetoden för båda optimeringsmodellerna. En jämförande analys genomfördes för att förstå de systemfördelar som erbjuds av de båda optimeringsmodellerna under olika strukturer för inmatningstariffer. Högre självförbrukningsnivåer uppnåddes genom den årliga schemaläggningsmetoden, men den återspeglar inte realtidsdriften av systemen i hushållet. En optimering med rullande horisont återspeglar energisystemets drift i realtid och har en lägre självförbrukningsgrad på grund av en begränsad optimeringshorisont. Metoden visar på den betydande potentialen för självförbrukning speciellt i stället för minskande inmatningstariffer.

Poster exhibited at GPSC Student Showcase, February 24th, 2016, University of Arizona. / To make photovoltaics (PV) and concentrated solar thermal power (CSP) more practical forms of alternative energy, creative innovations to current solar energy methods must be employed. The PVMirror – a new technology – is our solution to that problem. The PVMirror combines PV and CSP technologies by splitting the spectrum of sunlight using a dichroic mirror film. Light that is not transmitted to the solar cell is to instead be reflected to a focus, by way of a curved mirror. This hybrid of technologies is competitive, as it is both efficient and affordable compared to many other innovations in renewable energy. The PVMirror is designed to be an easy and cost-effective replacement to the reflectors used in existing CSP plants. Ultimately, we hope to demonstrate this PVMirror technology on a large scale and market it. As validated from interviewing with industry professionals, this technology has the potential to impact the world of solar energy because many industrial companies and utility-scale CSP project developers are interested in pairing CSP and PV to increase efficiency. Currently, using an outdoor sun tracker, we are testing an 18 inch by 18 inch prototype with four solar cells.

This thesis focuses on the single-phase voltage-source inverter for use in photovoltaic (PV) electricity generating systems in both stand-alone and grid-tied applications. In many cases, developments in single-phase PV systems have followed developments in three-phase systems. Time-variant systems are more difficult to control than time-invariant systems. Nevertheless, by using suitable transformation techniques, time-variant systems can often be modelled as time-invariant systems. After the transformation, the control signals that are usually time-variant (often varying sinusoidally in time) become time-invariant at the fundamental frequency, and are hence much easier to deal with. With this approach, synchronous rotating frame control techniques have been previously proposed for high performance three-phase inverter applications. The transformation theory cannot be applied directly in single-phase systems without modification, and the d-q components would not be time-invariant in situations where harmonics, resonances or unbalance is present. Single-phase inverter controller designs based on the use of a synchronous rotating reference frame have been proposed, but such designs do not always perform as well as expected. This thesis aims to improve single-phase voltage-source inverters. The main objective is to address, in terms of cost, efficiency, power management and power quality, the problems found with single-phase designs based on a synchronous rotating frame single-phase inverter controller. Consequently, this thesis focuses on a novel controller approach in order to obtain a more reliable and flexible single-phase inverter. As the first step, this thesis investigates the single-phase inverter switching gate-drive algorithms and develops a form of space-vector pulse-width-modulation (SVPWM) in order to reduce total harmonic distortion. The results of the new SVPWM algorithm demonstrate its superior performance when compared with sinusoidal pulse-width-modulation (SPWM) which is often used with single-phase inverters. The second step, which is further reviewed and presented in this thesis, is the modelling of the single-phase inverter control based on the synchronous rotating frame. A mathematical analysis is conducted to determine the mechanism of the coupling that exists between the voltage phase and amplitude terms, and a new transformation strategy is proposed based on using the voltage phase as a reference at the Park transformation stages, and the current phase as a reference for the current at the transformation stages. The line-frequency components of the feedback signals are transformed to time-invariant components, thus eliminating the ripple and reducing the computational burden associated with the controller stage. Consequently, the inverter feedback controller stage is designed so that the coupling terms are decoupled within the controller itself. The effectiveness of the techniques proposed in this thesis are demonstrated by simulation using the MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The proposed technique was also investigated through a practical implementation of the control system using a Digital Signal Processor (DSP) and a single-phase inverter. This practical system was tested up to 1 kW only (limited by the available inverter hardware). Nevertheless, the correlation between the simulation and the practical results is high and this gives confidence that the developed mechanism will allow the 2.5kW goal to be achieved. Practical test cases illustrate the effectiveness of the models. In addition, the comparisons between experimental and simulation results permit the system's behaviour and performance to be accurately evaluated. With the development of the new controller, small-scale single-phase renewable energy systems will become more useful in the field of power quality management through their ability to separately control the phase and amplitude of the output voltage. Consequently, incorporation of this type of generator within the national electrical distribution network, as distributed generators (DG) at low-voltage level, can assist with power quality management at the consumer side of the grid. In addition, such a generator can also operate in stand-alone mode if the grid becomes unavailable. The third step in this thesis investigates small-scale single-phase renewable energy systems operating as decentralized distributed generators within a local network. This operation is achieved by controlling the inverter side using the quantities measured at the common coupling point between the grid and the inverter, without requiring other extensive communications. Thus, the small-scale single-phase renewable energy distributed generator systems will contain only a local controller at each installation.

The global energy trilemma has brought attention to the importance of energy access, in particular to the 1.3 billion people worldwide without access to electricity. Vital for addressing poverty, improving people s quality of lives and meeting the Millennium Development Goals, small scale solar energy technologies are espoused as a solution to household energy needs in off-grid areas of the developing world. This thesis contributes to this critical research area through an investigation of energy governance issues in Nicaragua; specifically it focuses on the practices and experiences of off-grid solar energy technologies. The lived realities, voices and aspirations of energy users are largely absent in scholarly accounts of energy poverty, as such this thesis considers the implications of solar energy technologies from the perspective of those ultimately adopting, using, maintaining (and abandoning) them. Contributing to the burgeoning field of geographical and social science studies of energy, this thesis draws on ten months of field research in Nicaragua, which encompassed more than seventy qualitative interviews with stakeholders at multiple spatial scales. This included actors from international development agencies, national government, non-governmental organisations, the private sector, civil society, as well as households participating in three solar energy programmes. This was complemented by a large household survey of participants from one solar energy programme. Incorporating perspectives from the micro, meso and macro scales, this study presents a highly nuanced picture of the Nicaraguan energy landscape. The study concludes that interaction between global energy paradigm shifts and the domestic political economic context produced an electricity sector that was until recently - characterised by low distributional equity, deep consumer mistrust and dominated by fossil fuel-based electricity generation. The recent prioritisation of energy as a key developmental concern is demonstrated not only in strong government intervention, but also through growing international interest in solving Nicaragua s energy problem . A raft of programmes to green the electricity generating matrix, strengthen distribution activities and expand electricity access have emerged. Despite these encouraging developments, this research concludes that issues related to transparency, vested interests and the politicisation of electricity access appear to remain unresolved. The study traces the development of the off-grid solar energy market segment, revealing a complex architecture of institutions and actors working to promote and deploy solar energy technologies at scale. While this market initially developed in response to gaps in remote electrification plans, the research finds that recent grid expansion activities mean that the longer-term scope for small scale solar energy technologies is limited. However, solar energy remains an important feature of energy development assistance in Nicaragua, with further evidence in this study highlighting the amenability of solar energy to multiple institutional objectives and mandates whether climate change-related or poverty focused. The thesis concludes that the positions and expectations of key solar actors are often misaligned with the needs, wants and aspirations of off-grid energy users. Engagement with the narratives of people living in remote, off-grid areas reveals that the implications of solar energy programmes are not guaranteed, static, or necessarily captured by all households or indeed, all members of households. Users perceive that small scale solar energy technologies provide important soft benefits including increased levels of comfort, security, wellbeing and connectivity. However, the benefits are only captured for as long as the technology continues to work whether in organisational, financial, technical or social terms. The research concludes that there are numerous challenges facing solar energy interventions in Nicaragua, with some barriers connected to the situation of the user household, for instance, their continued ability to absorb the financial commitments associated with technology use. Other challenges link to the broader political economic context, where the highly complex, fragmented and politicised nature of (solar) electricity access has the potential to undermine interventions. This thesis argues that it is vital to examine solar energy interventions as embedded within broader political economic frameworks, but also to account for the intricacies of inter and intra-household dynamics. The study contributes new insights and empirical findings to debates on global energy governance, energy poverty, and the practices, politics and experiences of off-grid solar energy technologies in the Global South.

Development and optimisation of a robust energy yield prediction methodology is the ultimate aim of this research. Outdoor performance of the PV module is determined by the influences of a variety of interlinked factors related to the environment and device technologies. There are two basic measurement data sets required for any energy yield prediction model. Firstly, characterisation of specific PV module technology under different operating conditions and secondly site specific meteorological data. Based on these two datasets a calculation procedure is required in any specific location energy yield estimation. This research established a matrix based multi-dimensional measurement set points for module characterisation which is independent of PV technologies. This novel approach has been established by demonstrating an extended correlation of different environmental factors (irradiance, temperature and spectral irradiance) and their influences on the commercial PV device technologies. Utilisation of the site specific meteorological data is the common approach applied in this yield prediction method. A series of modelling approach, including a tri-linear interpolation method is then applied for energy yield calculation. A novel Monte Carlo simulation is demonstrated for uncertainty analysis of irradiance (pyranometer CM 11) & temperature (PT 1000) measurements and ultimately the yield prediction of c-Si and CIGS modules. The degree of uncertainties of irradiance is varies from ??2% to ??6.2% depending on the level of monthly irradiation. The temperature measurement uncertainty is calculated in the range of ??0.18??C to ??0.46%??C in different months of the year. The calculated uncertainty of the energy yield prediction of c-Si and CIGS module are ??2.78% and ??15.45%. This research validated different irradiance translation models to identify the best matched model for UK climate for horizontal to in-plane irradiance. Ultimately, the validation results of the proposed Fast Energy Yield Calculation (FEnYCs), shows a good agreement against measured values i.e. 5.48%, 6.97% and 3.1% for c-Si, a-Si and CIGS module respectively.

Conventional energy sources are not only finite and depleting rapidly, but are a major source of global warming because they are key contributors of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Renewable energy sources are one important approach to these challenges. Distributed micro-generation energy sources are expected to increase the diversity of energy sources for the grid, but also increase the flexibility and resilience of the grid. Furthermore, it could reduce the domestic energy demand from the grid by enabling local consumption of energy generated through renewable sources. The most widely installed renewable energy generation systems in domestic environments, in UK, are based on solar power. However, there is a common recurring issue related to output intermittency of most promising renewable energy generation methods (e.g. solar and wind), resulting in a temporal energy mismatch between local energy generation and energy consumption. Current state-of-the-art technologies/solutions for tackling temporal energy mismatch rely on various types of energy storage technologies, most of which are not suitable for the domestic environments because they are designed for industrial scale application and relatively costly. As such energy storage system technologies are generally not deemed as economically viable or attractive for domestic environments. This research project seeks to tackle the temporal energy mismatch problem between local PV generated energy and domestic energy consumption without the need for dedicated energy storage systems; without affecting the householders comfort and/or imposing operational burdens on the householders. Simulation has been chosen as the major vehicle to facilitate much of the research investigation although data collated from related research projects in the UK and Jordan have been used in the research study. Solar radiation models have been established for predicting the solar radiation for days with clear-sky for any location at any time of the year. This model has achieved a correlation factor of 0.99 in relating to the experimental data-set obtained from National Energy Research Centre Amman/Jordan. Such a model is an essential component for supporting this research study, which has been employed to predict the amount of solar power that could be obtained in different locations and different day(s) of the year. A Domestic Energy Ecosystem Model (DEEM) has been established, which is comprised of two sub-models, namely “PV panels” and “domestic energy consumption” models. This model can be configured with different parameters such as power generation capacity of the photovoltaic (PV) panels and the smart domestic appliances to model different domestic environments. The DEEM model is a vital tool for supporting the test, evaluation and validation of the proposed temporal energy mismatch control strategies. A novel temporal energy mismatch control strategy has been proposed to address these issues by bringing together the concepts of load shifting and energy buffering, with the support of smart domestic appliances. The ‘What-if’ analysis approach has been adopted to facilitate the study of ‘cause-effect’ under different scenarios with the proposed temporal energy mismatch control strategy. The simulation results show that the proposed temporal energy mismatch control strategy can successfully tackle the temporal energy mismatch problem for a 3 bedroom semi-detached house with 2.5kWp PV panels installed, which can utilise local generated energy by up to 99%, and reduce the energy demand from the grid by up to 50%. Further analysis using the simulation has indicated significant socio-economic impacts to the householders and the environment could be obtained from the proposed temporal energy mismatch control strategy. It shows the proposed temporal energy mismatch control strategy could significantly reduce the annual grid energy consumption for a 3 bedrooms semi-detached house and produce significant carbon reductions.

The usage of conventional energy applications generates disproportionate emissions of greenhouse gases and the consumption of part of the energy resources available in the world. It has become an important problem which has serious effects on the climatic change. Therefore, it is crucial to reduce these emissions as much as possible. To be able to achieve this, renewable energy technologies must be used instead of conventional energy applications. Solar Photovoltaic (PV) technologies do not release greenhouse gas emissions directly and can save more than 30 million tonnes of carbon per exajoule of electricity generated relative to a natural gas turbine running at 45% efficiency. Shadowing is one of the most important aspects that affects the performance of PV systems. Consequently, many investigations through this topic are being done in order to develop new technologies which mitigate the impact of shadowing during PV production. In order to minimise the impact of shadowing it is desired to be able to predict the performance of a system with PV-modules during shadowing. In this thesis a simulation program for calculating the IV-curve for series connected PV-modules during partial shadowing has been developed and experimentally validated. PV systems modelling and simulation in LTspice environment has been presented and validated by means of a comparative analysis with the experimental results obtained in a set of tests performed in the laboratory of Gävle University. Experimental measurements were carried out in two groups. The first group corresponds with the experiments done in the string of six modules with bypass diodes while the measurements of the second group have been performed on a single PV module at HIG University. The simulation results of both groups demonstrated a remarkable agreement with the experimental data, which means that the model designed at LTspice supposes a very useful tool that can be used to study the performance of PV systems. This tool contributes to the investigations in this topic and it aims to benefit future installations providing a better knowledge of the shading problem. The master’s thesis shows an in-depth description of the required method to design a PV cell, a PV module and a PV array using LTspice IV and the input parameters as well as the needed tests to adjust the models. Moreover, it has been carried out a pedagogical study describing the effect that different shadow configurations have in the performance of solar cells. This study facilitates the understanding of the performance of PV modules under different shadowing effects. Lastly, it has also been discussed the benefits of installing some newer technologies, like DC-DC optimizers or module inverters, to mitigate the shadowing effects. The main conclusion about this topic has been that although most of the times the output power will be increased with the use of optimizers sometimes the optimizer does not present any benefits.