The purpose of this narrative inquiry was to explore how parents understand and experience their child’s involvement and non-involvement in community leisure experiences. The study involved five parents with children between eight and twenty-one years of age, and asked them about the recreation experiences of their child who had a cognitive and/or physical disability. Narrative methodology enabled a holistic, comprehensive and personal approach to exploring their experiences. Each parent completed two narrative interviews, the first to produce a narrative account and the second to explore the meaning of his or her narrative. This study used a two step analysis process to explore the narratives. The descriptive analysis focused on establishing the context, and creating the narrative account using the interview transcripts and my interpretation of the stories. An interpretive analysis was completed in three phases to explore the purpose of the story, the order and sequence and presentation of self, and explored the cultural practices of the narratives. From the narratives I found many parents told their stories for other parents or recreation practitioners. The key message from the stories was the importance of recreation for social networking for both parent and child. Important spaces from the stories were identified: space to be social, space to succeed and space to be engaged or included. Other characters played critical roles in the recreation experiences. Internal conflict was often experienced by parents where the desire for the child to participate clashed with the parents’ hesitation, concern, or schedule. The final phase of analysis revealed a difference between my understandings of key terms (segregation, integration and inclusion) and the parents’ understandings of those terms. Many parents and children had experienced a level of exclusion both from and within recreation experiences. Inclusion was found to be an enabling and disabling practice. I found gains in political power developed through increases in social and psychological power. Levels of trust and the phases of empowerment were important to the parents’ understandings of inclusion. The conclusions identified the parents as being responsible for negotiating recreation, and the children had an awareness of their disability. Finally, discrepancies about the meaning of segregation, integration and inclusion were identified.

Recreation planning occurs in many Ontario municipalities, yet there is little research on the factors leading to successful implementation. Recreation departments are often asked to do more with less, which is difficult without a comprehensive plan. The current study examined nine Ontario municipalities to determine the factors that lead to implementation of their recreation master planning. Results revealed that there are many factors required for implementation, including: creating a comprehensive terms of reference, educating staff on planning principles, working with a planning consultant, working successfully with other municipal departments, involving a variety of stakeholders in the process, having the plan available to the public, and creating a method for reviewing and updating the plan. The study also found that the planning process should include: thoughtfulness when creating the terms of reference, extensive public consultation, effective staff consultation, frequent council input, consultation with a recreation planner, and a method for updating and reviewing the plan. The research also found that the plan content should include: goals, background information, internal and external resource, facility and program inventory, public consultation results, and an extensive implementation section.

Learning does occur at camp, but what kind of learning? And do what participants learn at camp transfer to other parts of a young persons’ life after the camp experience? This evaluation research study was designed to compare what a camp program anticipates as its outcomes to what outcomes it actually achieves. It set up an outcome evaluation that sought to understand what program staff at Camp Giving Tree anticipate are the developmental outcomes for students attending a 3-day, 2-night School-Camp Partnership Program (SCPP) as compared with teachers’ perspectives on their students’ developmental outcome achievements as a result of their participation in the SCPP. This study found that camp staff and teachers perceived that at camp, student learning was connected to four main themes: (1) positive risk taking, (2) social competencies and comforts, (3) engagement with creative thinking (4) strength of character. One month after camp however, teachers observed that hardly any transfer seemed occurred in their students’ behaviour at school. Even though hardly any transfer was reported, teachers believed that camp gave their students hope and optimism for their future and that if school was more like camp, their students would be able to learn more. The discussion focuses on three main themes: (1) on the concept of transfer as it relates to program structure and the prediction of behaviour change (2) positive risk taking related to the concepts of positive psychology and optimism and (3) the idea that learning can be more enjoyable if it includes reflection, if it promotes creative thinking and if the learning environment is highly social. This study’s conclusions suggest opportunities in: future research design and future youth programming opportunities (especially related to ongoing support after a single recreation experience). Finally, this study urges people, programs and institutions directly involved with youth development to take on more of a deliberate role in supporting transfer from one experience to another for young people.

Recreation planning occurs in many Ontario municipalities, yet there is little research on the factors leading to successful implementation. Recreation departments are often asked to do more with less, which is difficult without a comprehensive plan. The current study examined nine Ontario municipalities to determine the factors that lead to implementation of their recreation master planning. Results revealed that there are many factors required for implementation, including: creating a comprehensive terms of reference, educating staff on planning principles, working with a planning consultant, working successfully with other municipal departments, involving a variety of stakeholders in the process, having the plan available to the public, and creating a method for reviewing and updating the plan. The study also found that the planning process should include: thoughtfulness when creating the terms of reference, extensive public consultation, effective staff consultation, frequent council input, consultation with a recreation planner, and a method for updating and reviewing the plan. The research also found that the plan content should include: goals, background information, internal and external resource, facility and program inventory, public consultation results, and an extensive implementation section.

Learning does occur at camp, but what kind of learning? And do what participants learn at camp transfer to other parts of a young persons’ life after the camp experience? This evaluation research study was designed to compare what a camp program anticipates as its outcomes to what outcomes it actually achieves. It set up an outcome evaluation that sought to understand what program staff at Camp Giving Tree anticipate are the developmental outcomes for students attending a 3-day, 2-night School-Camp Partnership Program (SCPP) as compared with teachers’ perspectives on their students’ developmental outcome achievements as a result of their participation in the SCPP. This study found that camp staff and teachers perceived that at camp, student learning was connected to four main themes: (1) positive risk taking, (2) social competencies and comforts, (3) engagement with creative thinking (4) strength of character. One month after camp however, teachers observed that hardly any transfer seemed occurred in their students’ behaviour at school. Even though hardly any transfer was reported, teachers believed that camp gave their students hope and optimism for their future and that if school was more like camp, their students would be able to learn more. The discussion focuses on three main themes: (1) on the concept of transfer as it relates to program structure and the prediction of behaviour change (2) positive risk taking related to the concepts of positive psychology and optimism and (3) the idea that learning can be more enjoyable if it includes reflection, if it promotes creative thinking and if the learning environment is highly social. This study’s conclusions suggest opportunities in: future research design and future youth programming opportunities (especially related to ongoing support after a single recreation experience). Finally, this study urges people, programs and institutions directly involved with youth development to take on more of a deliberate role in supporting transfer from one experience to another for young people.

This study seeks to deepen knowledge and understanding of the tourist gaze and tourist photography. The original concept of the ‘tourist gaze as proposed by John Urry is inherently Western-centric and, as a consequence, it is arguably of limited value as a conceptual framework for appraising the tastes, gazes and, more generally, the visual practices of the increasing number of non-Western tourists’. At the same, despite the fact that, in recent years, smart phone cameras have become widely used by people both in their everyday lives in general and in their travels in particular, few attempts have been made to explore and analyse the potential transformations brought to the landscape of the tourist photography by the increasing use of smart phone cameras. The purpose of this thesis, therefore, is to re-conceptualise and study empirically the tourist gaze and tourist photographic behaviour, as influenced by a variety of social, cultural and technological factors, amongst non-Western tourists. More specifically, it aims to explore the visual preferences of Chinese tourists in the UK, to consider critically what and how they take photographs of, and to evaluate the extent to which their gazes, their performance of gazing and their photographic practices are shaped by social, cultural and technological factors. In order to meet this aim, the qualitative research method of visual autoethnography is employed during two field studies with Chinese tourists in the UK. More precisely, a first field study was based on a seven-day package tour undertaken with eighteen Chinese tourists, visiting a total of thirteen destinations around British destinations. The second field study, in contrast, involved the researcher undertaking a five-day holiday with six Chinese tourists to the Isle of Wight off the south coast of England. During these two field studies, the researcher adopted the role of ‘researcher-as-tourist’, engaging in travel with the respondents, staying in the same accommodation, joining in with their activities and taking photographs with them. These first-hand travel and photographic experiences conspired to become an integral part of the resultant data resources which were not only analysed but also shared with the respondents during interviews with them. From the data collected during the two field studies and, indeed, the autoethnographic experiences of the researcher, it became clearly evident that smart phone cameras had become the principal means of taking photographs amongst Chinese tourists. Moreover, smart phone cameras have also altered the landscape of tourist photography, primarily by de-exoticising this practice and further enhancing its ‘playfulness’ and increasing its social functions. During the field studies, the Chinese tourist respondents engaged in a variety of visual and photographic activities, purposefully including but by no means being confined to an interactive game of photo-taking and photo-sharing, imagining authenticity, sensing the passing of time from gazing on natural spectacles, and deliberately observing what they considered to be ‘advanced’ aspects of the toured destination. Based upon these identified performances and practices, this thesis proposes the concept and framework of the Chinese tourist gaze. That framework essentially establishes what Chinese tourists prefer to see during their travels and seeks to explain why and how they see certain specific spectacles or tourist objects. At the same time, it theoretically re-situates both their gazes and their ways of gazing within a network of influential social, cultural and technological factors, including: the travel patterns of the élite in pre-modern China; the cultural characteristics of Chinese people; the intertwining of contemporary communication and photography technologies; and, the fusion of the Chinese nation-state, its economic policies policies and the resultant social and environmental problems that have emerged over the last three decades. Moreover, the framework points to potential future transformations in the Chinese tourist gaze, such as the de-exoticisation of that tourist gaze. The principal contribution of this thesis to extant knowledge is the concept and framework of the Chinese tourist gaze, as this may provide future researchers with the foundation for continuing to study and more profoundly understand the tastes, gazes, practices of gazing and other visual activities, including photography, of Chinese tourists. Indeed, given the inherent Western-centric bias in the relevant literature, an appropriate theoretical framework enabling them to do has, arguably, not previously existed. In addition, the dimensions and characteristics of tourist smart-phone-photography revealed in this research are of much significance, contributing to a deeper, richer understanding of transformations in the practice of tourist photography and, in particular, of why and how contemporary Chinese tourists take photographs. Furthermore, through identifying and exploring how the Chinese respondents in this study shared their photographs, greater knowledge and understanding has emerged of Chinese tourists’ technological travel communication and connections as well as their attitudes towards and use of the multiplicity of social networking sites and mobile-apps.

Considering that Patello-Femoral Pain (PFP) is responsible for over 25% of all road cycling related injury and over 65% of injuries in the lower limb, alongside trauma related pain it remains the main injury affecting experienced and elite cyclists and is commonly treated using taping. Taping can broadly be categorised into ‘McConnell’ and ‘Kinesiology type tape’ (KTT) as these are seen as recognised clinical approaches in dealing with patella tracking and pain issues. The aim was to collect specific data to inform and develop a study into current taping techniques used in cycling related knee pain. An online questionnaire determined the techniques used by clinicians treating elite and experienced cyclists. Recruitment was through professional networking and the social network Twitter™. The questionnaire indicated a clear preference for the use of KTT. A specific taping technique was identified for use in a laboratory-based study. Respondents indicated their rationale for using tape, which included pain reduction, neuro-muscular adaptation, placebo and altered biomechanics. A subsequent study then investigated the interventions, KTT, neutral tape and no taping, alongside comparing asymptomatic (n=12) and symptomatic (n=8) cyclists. Each cyclist conducted three separate and randomised intervention tests at three powers (100W,200W,300W) on a static trainer. Kinematic data were collected using a 10-camera Oqus 3 motion analysis system. Reflective markers were placed on the foot, shank, thigh and pelvis using the CAST technique. This study showed significant differences in the knee, ankle and hip kinematics between cyclists with and without knee pain. The knee had increased ROM (coronal) in those with knee pain (p=0.005 or 18% change) whereas in the hip, those with knee pain had less movement (p=0.001 or 26% change). The ankle however had an increase in movement (transverse) in those with knee pain (p=0.034 or 14% change). Significant differences in hip, knee and ankle kinematics on the application of KTT were found, however these had no identifiable pattern that suggested any clinical indication. Interestingly, similar levels of differences were also found with the neutral taping application, which indicated that a specific technique might not be critical. It was also noted that 200 watts of power produced the most pain response during testing (33% change) which may have a practical application to future taping related clinical testing. If we are looking to establish a biomechanical change using KTT, ROM may indeed be reduced, however individuals had different patterns of movement, which did not appear to indicate a consistent or predictable effect. This may mean that pain reduction is more likely through a mechanism of neuromuscular adaptation or proprioception. It appears unclear whether a specific technique of application is fundamental to outcome. The hip, knee and ankle variants may aid clinical application when treating cycling related knee pain through screening and testing. This variation in movement may be linked to increased patello-femoral (PF)/tibio-femoral contact areas and PF stress when significant power is applied during cycling. The findings indicated a proximal to distal relationship, which is in line with current evidence and has implications to rehabilitation. Taping reduced pain, however it is likely that this effect is not what the anecdotal rhetoric presumes. If the intent is to use the tape to elicit specific biomechanical changes then this is difficult to substantiate and measure. If the expectations are purely around pain then it is likely that pain will be decreased using KTT, albeit short term. Further work is clearly required in the area of PFP and cycling.

Literature within the tourism discipline emphasized the importance of destination image due to its effect on both supply and demand sides of marketing. Gunn’s seven-stage model illustrated the process and evolution of image formation of a destination has been used as a guiding model in the study. The purpose of this study is to explore the coherence and the difference between pre-conceived images and post-images of China holding by the North American tourists. Purposive sampling was adapted to reach the target participants who fit the study criteria. Qualitative data were collected from eight interviews with participants from Canada and America. Semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were conducted during October and November 2011. Essences were developed from the analysis of the interview data by conducting initial coding and focused coding. Findings of the study were concluded into three parts: before visiting China; actual travel experiences; and after visiting China. Consistent with Gunn (1972)’s seven-stage theory, findings of the study showed a clear change between pre-conceived images and post-images holding by participants. Images involved from simple, vague, mythical, and stereotypical to comprehensive, realistic, and holistic. Moreover, advantages and problems of the international tourism in China emerged with the progress of data analysis. The findings reflected the perceptions of China in the eyes of North American tourists; consequently, it could contribute to the future tourism practitioners who aim to promote China to be a desirable international tourism destination.

Traumas such as experiences of military combat, violent personal assault, natural disasters, severe vehicle accidents, being taken as hostage or prisoner, and diagnosis of life threating disease (American Psychiatric Association, 2000) impact every aspect and facet of the lives of trauma survivors including the physical, social, mental, emotional, psychological, and spiritual aspects of well-being. Trauma results in avoidance and dissociation, hyperarousal, and intrusion and constriction (Herman, 1997). Trauma may also lead individuals to anxiety, depression, somatization and cognitive distortions (Briere, 2004), disconnection from their bodies (Ogden el al. 2006; van der Kolk, 2006), and getting stuck in the past (van der Kolk et al., 1996). In leisure contexts, trauma may lead to experiencing avoidance, re-enactment in leisure, and the tendency to isolate and fear emotional and physical intimacy with others (Arai, Griffin, Miatello, & Greig, 2008). The foundation of trauma healing is establishing safety, mourning and reconnection with ordinary life (Herman, 1997), reconnection with the body, and being present (Levine, 2010). While cognitive therapy plays a role in trauma healing, somatic approaches provide additional support to reconnection of body and mind. Somatically-oriented therapies support trauma survivors to acquire a sense of safety and mastery over their bodies and to heal disconnection that results from trauma exposure (van der Kolk, 2003). The promise of interventions integrating body-mind in healing and support various mental health issues are growing and research is showing positive results. There is growing evidence of the role of physically-active leisure in healing trauma (Arai, Mock & Gallant, 2011). Yoga has been supported by a number of studies as a therapeutic intervention for both psychological and physiological conditions associated with trauma (Emerson & Hopper, 2011; Emerson, Sharma, Chaudhry, & Turner, 2009; The Trauma Centre, 2013; van der Kolk, 2012; Ware, 2007) and posttraumatic stress disorder (Descilo et al., 2007; Emerson et al., 2009; van der Kolk, 2012). Yoga originated over 5000 years ago in India and is a holistic and comprehensive system of practice and wellbeing that creates individuality, space, and opening allowing the self to be in the body without judgment. According to Iyengar (2002), yoga lifts up from clutches of pain and sorrow, and enables to live fully, taking a delight in life. The purpose of this phenomenological study was to explore the meanings and experiences of yoga for trauma survivors. Phenomenology attempts to capture participants’ perception of lived experience, plunging deep into the nature of being to embrace a mindful wondering about a project of life, of living, of what it means to live a life (van Manen, 2001). The study engaged thirteen individuals who experienced trauma and had been practicing yoga for at least five years in phenomenological interviews using open and active interview questions. Research questions guiding my study were: What is the nature of the yoga experience? What meanings do people who have experienced trauma make of this experience? What happens in the yoga experience that is healing? The findings emerged in the form of four essences describing the yoga experiences of participants: moving from the darkness of trauma into the light of yoga and living, entering into safe and sacred spaces, letting go into yoga and returning to embodiment of self, and embracing creativity and connection beyond the mat. Through the light that yoga brought into the darkness of the lives of the participants, they realized they are far more than just the trauma they experienced. This light allowed them know and touch the light within, feel safe again, reclaim their connection with self, befriending their bodies while being present in the moment and know the trauma has already happened and they do not have to stay there.

Identity development is a crucial process which occurs during the period of adolescence (Erikson, 1950, 1968). Researchers have suggested that the adolescent period is becoming prolonged due to increasing numbers of individuals pursuing post-secondary education (Kerckhoff, 2002; Larson, 2002; Mortimer & Larson, 2002). During this period known as “post-adolescence”, further identity formation is believed to take place (Mortimer & Larson, 2002). Despite these suggestions, little research has been performed regarding identity development during post-adolescence. In addition, the role of leisure during the identity formation period has largely been overlooked. The few studies that have been conducted on this topic focus on the relationship between leisure participation and identity development, while failing to acknowledge the role of other salient leisure lifestyle variables such as leisure experience, motivation and meaningfulness. In addition, previous studies have used global measures of identity, rather than considering separate dimensions of personal and social identity. The present study expands upon previous literature by investigating personal and social identity development during post-adolescence, and the relationship between identity and a variety of leisure lifestyle variables. Participants included 465 students from the University of Waterloo. Questionnaires were completed regarding leisure participation, meaningfulness derived from participation, leisure experience, motivation and identity. Results of the study indicate that identity development is still occurring during the period of post-adolescence. Leisure participation, meaningfulness, leisure experience and motivation all displayed some degree of a relationship with identity. Personal and social identities yielded differing associations with these leisure lifestyle factors. Personal identity was most strongly related to leisure experience, while social identity was associated with leisure motivation. Although causality cannot be inferred from the results of this study, indications do exist that these leisure lifestyle variables may exert some influence on the identity development process.