The fractionation of two biomass resources, red oak (Quercus rubra) chips and oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) trunk solids, into constitutive chemical components, cellulose, hemicelluloses (called "other carbohydrates") and non-carbohydrates (includes lignin, tannins, etc.), was studied quantitatively in terms of relative cleanness. Red oak chips were steam exploded using a batch reactor at five different treatment severities, Ro 5,000, 10,000, 15,000, 20,000 and 35,000. Steam exploded fibers (SEF) of each severity were extracted with water and alkali. Mass fractionation and summative analysis data of all solid biomass fractions were determined. These data were interpreted in term of a unifying clean fractionation concept designed to evaluate the effectiveness of the fractionation processes. Within a series of severities applied to a single biomass resource, the quantitative clean fractionation can be used to choose an optimum severity for the isolation of any particular component fraction. The red oak results revealed that 25 % (on average) of biomass solids were lost during steam explosion. Cellulose remained almost unaffected (retained in fibers form) by water and alkali extraction. About 35-55 % of the hemicelluloses can be recovered in the water extracted liquor fraction (WEL). The remaining non-cellulosic carbohydrates were lost during steam explosion, especially at high severity. At Ro 10,000 and above, alkali extracted fibers (AEF) consists almost entirely of cellulose and non-carbohydrates. The majority of the non-carbohydrates component (> 50 %) can be isolated by alkali extraction. The non-carbohydrate component harvested increased with severity to 67% at Ro 35,000. / Master of Science

Hardwood sawmills must become more efficient to remain competitive. One way to increase efficiency and competitiveness is to increase the value or lumber volume produced from logs. While methods to maximize value and volume recovery exist for round logs, little information exists on how to maximize these outcomes for logs with ellipticality. The goal of this research was to determine the impact of low and high degrees of ellipticality on green lumber grade and volume recovery for red oak logs under current sawing methods. Logs of low and high ellipticality were selected and processed at four Appalachian area sawmills. Processing variables and lumber output were tracked for all logs. It was determined that there was no significant difference in overrun, lumber volume, lumber value, and lumber grade between low and high ellipticality logs when comparing the log output at all four sawmills. It was determined that how an individual sawmill processes logs affects the outcome between logs with high and low ellipticality. None of the sawmills produced more value for high elliptical logs than for low elliptical logs and it was possible to produce more lumber volume and value with low elliptical logs. Highly elliptical logs required more processing time than low ellipticality logs in terms of log turns, total elapsed time at the headrig, and number of sawlines at the headrig. The increased processing time results in increased processing costs which were estimated to be $1.28 to $11.33 per log. These costs were not offset by an increase in lumber volume nor lumber value; therefore, highly elliptical sawlogs are less desirable to process than low elliptical logs using current sawing methods. / Master of Science

Reclamation of surface mined lands is required under the Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. Reforestation of mined lands is challenging due to harsh conditions such as soil compaction, herbaceous competition, and animal browse. We investigated the field performance of black walnut (<i>Juglans nigra</i>), northern red oak (<i>Quercus rubra</i>), and swamp white oak (<i>Quercus bicolor</i>) planted on two mine reclamation sites and evaluated the interactions of nursery stocktypes (container and bareroot), herbicide application, and tree shelters. Survival averaged 80% across all species and stocktypes after two years. Container stocktype had greater relative height and diameter growth, whereas bareroot had greater total height and diameter growth likely due to initial stocktype differences. Shelter use increased height growth and reduced diameter growth across both stocktypes. Swamp white oak (<i>Q. rubra</i>) had high survival and field performance regardless of silvicultural treatment, whereas the two other species showed strong early regeneration responses to silvicultural treatments. Container seedlings showed promise as an alternative to bareroot seedlings to promote survival and early growth on mine reclamation sites. Future research should be on continued development of container stocktypes to provide an economically feasible mine reclamation option for land managers.

Current surface mine reclamation in Appalachia involves returning the land to approximate original contour by grading the surface and planting grasses and early-successional trees. This results in a greatly altered ecosystem compared to the native forest that was there prior to mining. The reclaimed land is usually degraded economically and environmentally because mine soils are usually less productive than the native soils, and because the mined sites do not provide the same level of ecosystem services. This research addressed constraints to the return of the native ecosystem by assessing how mine spoil properties and treatments affect native tree species and soil microorganisms. A 4x2x3 factorial greenhouse experiment was used to examine the growth of one-year-old Fraxinus americana, Quercus rubra, and Liriodendron tulipifera as well as herbaceous plant occurrence and microbial biomass and activity. Three mine spoils, brown, weathered sandstone (BWS), white, unweathered sandstone (WUS), and gray, unweathered shale (GUH) were compared with undisturbed forest topsoil (UFT) to determine their suitability for tree growth. Half of each of the four media was inoculated with a 2.5-cm layer of topsoil. BWS was the optimal spoil material for the growth of F. americana, Q. rubra and microbial populations. Foliar nutrient analysis indicated that L. tulipifera was highly dependent on nutrient levels and was unable to grow well on any of the spoil types due to deficiencies. Inoculation with topsoil increased tree growth on the GUH spoil, and increased microbial activity and presence of herbaceous plants across all growth media. The field study was used to determine what spoil properties most influenced three-year-old Quercus alba growth. This information was used to test a mine quality classification model. Northeast facing sites with sandy spoils high in nutrients, moderate in pH, and high in microbial populations were optimal for tree growth. These variables explained 52% of the variation in tree growth. Tree growth was also highly correlated with tree foliar nutrient levels, further suggesting that tree growth was influenced by spoil nutrients. Microbial biomass and dehydrogenase production were also regressed against soil properties and were dependant on a moderate pH, high nitrogen levels, and low salt content. These variables explained 53% of the variability in microbial biomass and 50% of the variability in enzyme production. These studies suggest that tree growth and soil microbial populations are closely linked, and both are affected by mine spoil properties. During mined land reclamation, mine spoils conducive to tree growth should be selected if return of the native ecosystem is the reclamation goal. / Master of Science

Nutrient ion exchange was examined between simulated acid rain solutions and northern red oak (Ouercus rubra L.) leaves of trees growing in fertile, limestone-derived soil and less fertile, sandstone/shale-derived soil. Leaves harvested from trees growing on the fertile site had greater concentrations of total N, P, K, Ca, and Mn but less total Mg than leaves of trees on the less fertile site. Cation losses from leaves of both sites were similar when exposed T3 to simulated rain solutions of pH 5.6, 4.3, and 3.0. Simulated rain solutions of pH 3.0 leached the greatest amount of total cations from leaves of both sites. Differences in acidity between leachates and starting rain solutions increased as the acidity of starting solutions contacting leaves of either site increased. Differences in leaf nutrient status between sites typically did not affect leachate acidity. Hydrogen ion exchange, believed to be the main mechanism of cation loss from leaves of both sites, accounted for 30 to 44% of all cations leached from leaves of both sites. Concentrations of inorganic ions were measured in bulk rainfall and bulk throughfall collected beneath northern red oak trees growing on the fertile and less fertile sites. Rainfall passing through crowns at both sites was enriched with S0₄²⁻, P0₄³⁻, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, K⁺, Mn²⁺, and Fe²⁺, but lost NH₄⁺ to the crowns. There was little difference in the inorganic chemistry of incident rainfall between sites. Large-particle dryfall ionic concentrations, rainfall volume, and leaf area were all larger at the fertile than at the less fertile site. Higher concentrations of Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, NH₄⁺, Mn²⁺, and S0₄²⁻in throughfall at the fertile site compared to that of the less fertile site are likely due to the combination of these three factors. Historical northern red oak crown areas were estimated for the fertile and less fertile sites by a two step procedure using annual growth ring chronologies and published regression equations. These equations related total crown area to total crown dry weight. The usefulness of crown area estimates in throughfall studies was demonstrated by applying nutrient ion exchange data, collected beneath northern red oak crowns in 1984, to 1982 and 1930 crown area estimates. Smaller nutrient ion exchange estimates in 1930 were due to smaller crown area estimates. / Ph. D.

European forest ecosystems are changing drastically. The accelerating speed of current climate warming, further paired with drought events, storms and insect calamities, already results in reduced fitness, changes in forest health, species composition and productivity. Forest management is committed to develop suitable adaptation strategies to maintain the multitude of ecosystem services. In this context, the choice of seed origin for forest conversion and reforestation represents a key question to their success. Provenance trials, that test a wide range of provenances planted across multiple test sites, provide the urgently required evidence of population specific response to variable environmental conditions and may be used to derive recommendations under future conditions. This thesis concentrates on two economically and ecologically important native tree species, European beech and Norway spruce, as well as one of the most common introduced broadleaf species, Northern red oak. It provides a comprehensive analysis of their adaptive population differentiation and ability of phenotypically plastic response. For beech, 85 range-wide provenances were observed for 25 years in western, northern and eastern Germany. Considerable provenance differentiation exists, explaining 21% (stem form) to 45% (basal area) of the variance at individual sites and 20 to 39% across sites, while interactions between provenance and environment were absent. At the landscape level, spatially neighboring provenances showed similar trait expressions. These patterns were similar for height and basal area, but different for stem form. They could be directly linked to geographical variables using a multivariate regression tree analysis, which captured 58% of the phenotypic variation, whereby eleven ‘ecotypes’ characterized by local adaptation were delineated. A selection by two multi-trait indices gave highly concordant results and further underlined the trade-off between growth and stem form. Overall, the intermediate elevations of the central highlands in western Germany host highly suitable provenances. Lower elevation provenances from the southeast adapted to continental climate with harsh and cold winters, but warm and dry summers profit from the transfer to the favorable growing conditions in Germany and represent potential candidates for assisted migration. For red oak, each six provenances sourced from German stands and from North America were examined at age 33 on sites in northern, eastern and central Germany. In contrast to beech, provenance by environment interactions were significant and the thorough investigation of their nature provided highly consistent results. German provenances were mostly superior. This was particularly prevalent at the Atlantic site in Schleswig-Holstein, where the most outstanding provenance yields a basal area sum per hectare of +130% compared to the mean across six American provenances. Four of six German provenances were categorized as productive generalists, being suitable for planting across environments, while the other two are productive specialists for humid sites. Provenances from the native range had a lower performance, despite for the driest environment in eastern Germany, where one Canadian provenance sourced north of the Great Lakes emerged as a suitable specialist. Provenances from higher elevations in Georgia and Tennessee grew poorly and had low survival rates, especially in Schleswig-Holstein. Growth performance and survival of spruce was investigated based on the most extensive provenance trial series worldwide, established to test 1,100 provenances in 13 European countries. The analysis of 33 German sites of 100 provenances each, summarized to ten aggregated provenance groups, revealed relatively consistent ranks between groups up to age 51. Provenances from the Hercyno-Carpathian domain had superior short-term and positive long-term growth, while those towards the northern and southern range limits performed poorly. To develop a universal response function, the data set was extended to a total of 97 sites with 100 provenances each. Increasing summer heat paired with decreasing water availability was identified as the main climatic variable that restricts growth, while a prolonged frost-free period enables a longer period of active growth and therefore increasing growth potential within the restricted, remaining area. Clear signals of local adaptation to climatic clines spanning the entire range are barely detectable, as they are disguised by a latitudinal cline. This cline strongly reflects population differentiation for the Baltic domain, but fails to capture the high phenotypic variation associated to the geographic heterogeneity in the Central European Mountain ranges paired with the species history of postglacial migration. Finally, growth predictions of the trait-based model were compared to the predictions of a classic occurrence-based species distribution model. Both models showed a substantial retreat towards the northern latitudes and higher elevations (-55% and -43% by the 2080s). However, thanks to the species’ particularly high phenotypic plasticity the decline is delayed. Model-based prescriptions for assisted migration may not decrease the predicted range decline for Norway spruce, but may help to capitalize on potential opportunities associated with warming climate in the remaining area.:1 General introduction 1.1 European forests under climate pressure 1.2 The capacity of natural populations to cope with changing conditions and its limits 1.3 Strategies of adaptive forest management 1.4 Provenance trials to study population response 1.5 The theory of local optimality and its significance for seed deployment 1.6 Thesis outline and objectives 1.7 Species of interest and experimental data basis 1.8 The analytical tool set 1.9 Author contributions 2 Ecotypic variation in multiple traits of European beech: selection of suitable provenances based on performance and stability 2.1 Abstract 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Material and Methods 2.3.1 Experimental design 2.3.2 Measurement of traits 2.3.3 Quantification of provenance and site effects 2.3.4 Spatial interpolation of trait variation 2.3.5 Multi-variate grouping of provenances 2.3.6 Calculation of multi-trait indices for provenance selection 2.4 Results 2.4.1 Differentiation among provenances at individual sites 2.4.2 Provenance by environment interactions 2.4.3 Spatial patterns in provenance performance 2.4.4 Selection of suitable provenances 2.5 Discussion 2.5.1 Absence of provenance by environment interaction 2.5.2 Ecotypic variation across species range 2.5.3 Trade-off between growth and stem form 2.5.4 Concluding remarks 2.6 Supplementary information 3 Provenances from introduced stands of Northern Red Oak (Quercus rubra L.) outperform those from the natural distribution 3.1 Abstract 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Material and methods 3.3.1 Provenances and experimental design 3.3.2 Measurements 3.3.3 Data analysis 3.4 Results 3.4.1 Percent gain in productivity 3.4.2 Provenance-environment interaction 3.4.3 Generalists vs. specialists 3.4.4 Differences in stem form 3.5 Discussion 3.5.1 Superiority of German provenances 3.5.2 Suitable P×E approaches for provenance trials 3.5.3 Use of P×E to improve provenance recommendations 3.6 Conclusion 3.7 Supplementary information 4 The IUFRO Norway spruce provenance test from 1964/68: a first conclusive evaluation of the German trial sites based on provenance groups 4.1 Abstract 4.2 Zusammenfassung 4.3 Einleitung 4.4 Material und Methoden 4.5 Ergebnisse 4.6 Diskussion 4.7 Schlussfolgerung und Ausblick 5 High phenotypic plasticity, but low signals of local adaptation to climate in a large-scale transplant experiment of Picea abies (L.) Karst. in Europe 81 5.1 Abstract 5.2 Introduction 5.3 Material and Methods 5.3.1 Common gardens 5.3.2 National forest inventories 5.3.3 Climatic and geographic data 5.3.4 OccurrenceSDM 5.3.5 TraitSDM 5.3.6 Species range change 5.4 Results 5.4.1 Habitat projections by OccurrenceSDM 5.4.2 Growth projections by TraitSDM 5.4.3 Comparison of future species range 5.5 Discussion 5.5.1 Phenotypic plasticity largely determines height growth 5.5.2 OccurrenceSDM underestimates species range 5.5.3 Limitations of the TraitSDM 5.5.4 Implications for forest management 5.6 Supplementary information 6 General discussion and synthesis 6.1 Geographic variation within species 6.2 Plasticity as a main driver of juvenile growth 6.3 Absence vs. presence of provenance by environment interactions 6.4 Evidence-based seed transfer 6.5 Implications for assisted migration 6.6 Outlook Cumulative Bibliography

Growth performance of Bur oak (Q. macrocarpa Michx.) and Red oak (Q. rubra L.) under salinity conditions was assessed by growing seedlings in the presence of increasing levels of NaCl. Salinity reduced root growth in both species, although its repressive effect was more pronounced in Red oak. Exposure to 75 mM NaCl for three weeks almost arrested root growth in Red oak, while it reduced it only by 40 % in Bur oak. Red oak roots showed extensive necrosis and limited branching. Salinity also induced leaf injury, which at a NaCl level of 25 mM was less severe in Bur oak possibly due the higher expression of dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX), enzymes participating in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Salinity also altered nutrient uptake and accumulation in root and leaf tissue. Compared to Red oak, the relative calcium level in Bur oak roots exposed to increased salinity remained elevated, while an opposite trend was observed in leaf tissue. This was in contrast to nitrogen and potassium, the relative level of which was higher in Red oak leaves grown in the presence of NaCl. The better performance of Bur oak root tissue under salinity conditions was ascribed to structural modifications of the root system with maturation of casparian bands and suberinization occurring closer to the root tip. These structures are known to act as barriers enhancing ion selectivity. Collectively this study demonstrates that relative to Red oak, Bur oak is more tolerant to NaCl induced salinity conditions. / February 2017

<p dir="ltr">For several decades, the ecological dominance of white oak (<i>Quercus alba</i>) has been declining throughout the species’ native range in eastern North America with failure to recruit new individuals into the overstory. White oak’s decline is concerning as the species is of great cultural, ecological, and economic value. Planting artificial regeneration is one approach to bolstering flagging natural white oak regeneration insufficient in vigor or quantity to supplant mature canopy white oak. Shelterwood harvests and artificial regeneration alone or in combination are frequently suggested to be an effective means of securing sufficient white oak regeneration in central hardwood understories. Because there is a much more comprehensive body of work examining northern red oak (<i>Quercus rubra</i>) than white oak artificial regeneration, managerial prescriptions for artificial regeneration of white oak are commonly generalized from northern red oak prescriptions. If the two species are silvically different, however, they should be managed differently to achieve maximum effectiveness of regenerative prescriptions.</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr">I conducted both a silvicultural field trial and a more controlled shade and competition study to examine artificial white oak regeneration responses to light and competition gradients. In the silvicultural field trial, I tested the impacts of varied lengths of competition control, geographical seed source, and canopy cover on growth and survival of artificial white oak regeneration within an expanding shelterwood system. After three growing seasons, my results indicated that seedlings grow and survive at the greatest rates in areas of up to approximately 50% canopy closure, or conditions found in harvest gaps.</p><p dir="ltr">In a shade and competition study, I compared artificial northern red oak and white oak growth, morphology, and physiology responses to three light levels (10% or low, 30% or medium, and full sun or high) under the presence or absence of an invasive competitor (Amur honeysuckle (<i>Lonicera maackii</i>)). After two years, my results indicated that medium light levels resulted in the greatest height and diameter growth as well as the greatest nonstructural carbohydrate amounts in both root and shoot organs of both species. Interestingly, my physiology results indicated that northern red oak seedlings displayed lower light compensation points and greater quantum yields than white oak seedlings. These traits potentially indicate greater shade tolerance of northern red oak than white oak. Further, white oak foliar nitrogen in shaded treatments, quantum yield, and light compensation points were impacted more severely by competition than equivalent northern red oak measures, indicating that white oak seedlings may not be as well equipped to handle invasive competition pressures. These results indicate that these two upland oak species are fundamentally different, and these differences should be considered when writing management prescriptions.</p>

The percentage of low-grade material composing the annual hardwood lumber production in the U.S. is on the rise. As a result, finding markets for low-grade and low-value lumber has been identified as a top priority by researchers and industry associations. Computer simulation has been used by the manufacturing industry for several decades as a decision support tool. Simulation programs are commonly used and relied on by researchers and the industry alike to conduct research on various aspects of the rough mill from processing to recovery efficiency. This research used the ROMI-RIP and ROMI-CROSS simulation programs to determine specific conditions that led to optimal part yield when processing No. 3A Common, 4/4-thickness, kiln-dried, red oak lumber in rip-first and crosscut-first operations. Results of the simulations indicated that cutting bills with narrow part widths and short part lengths are conducive to obtaining optimal part yield while processing No. 3A Common lumber. Furthermore, it was found that as the percent of No. 3A Common lumber in a grade mix increases, part yields and sawing efficiencies decrease. The results also indicated that higher part yields will be obtained when processing short-length No. 3A Common lumber between 6 and 8 feet in length. / Master of Science

Nous avons étudié deux chênaies à la limite de l’aire de répartition de l’espèce que Québec afin de reconstruire son historique de régénération et évaluer quels facteurs gouvernent la régénération juvénile. Dans cette optique, nous avons mené une étude dendrochronologique exhaustive des chênaies et une étude sur le terrain et en serre portant sur la germination, la survie et la croissance de quatre provenances de chêne rouge (gradient nord-sud), avec ou sans herbivorie, et selon plusieurs niveaux de nutriments du sol suivant une fertilisation. Les chênaies présentent des structures d’âge similaire qui coïncident avec les dernières perturbations de feu majeures dans la région autour des années 1920. Toutefois, les chênaies diffèrent quant à la densité et la composition en espèces d’arbres, ce qui suggère des différences de régime de feu ou de statut de succession écologique antérieure au feu. Le site a eu la plus grande influence sur la régénération du chêne rouge. Les semis du site présentant la densité d’arbres, l’indice de surface foliaire (LAI) et la disponibilité en eau les plus élevés ont montré un taux de survie supérieur de 29 %. La protection contre la grande herbivorie a également affecté la performance des semis, résultant en au taux de survie supérieur de 16 % et une plus grande taille des feuilles pour trois des quatre provenances étudiées. La provenance a aussi significativement influencé la performance des semis. La provenance locale (la plus nordique) a montré la plus faible performance, avec des taux de germination, de survie et de croissance inférieures de 28 à 42 % dans les deux expériences, alors que les provenances du sud ont montré une meilleure germination et survie en serre et une meilleure survie sur le terrain. L’augmentation de la fertilité du sol s’est avérée bénéfique dans l’expérience en serre mais n’a provoqué qu’un effet marginal sur la croissance et la survie sur le terrain, suggérant que ce facteur importe moins que les autres (ex. la disponibilité en eau et en lumière) pour les stades initiaux de régénération du chêne rouge. Nos résultats suggèrent que les efforts en sylviculture visant à favoriser le chêne rouge devraient se concentrer sur la sélection rigoureuse de sites et de provenances, et que la disponibilité de l’eau peut être une condition limitante pour le succès de la régénération du chêne rouge aux stades de gland et de semis juvénile (semis de l’année) à la limite nordique de son aire de répartition. / We studied two red oak stands at the northern distribution limit of the species in Quebec as a means to reconstruct regeneration history and assess which factors govern early regeneration. To do so, we conducted a thorough dendrochronological study of the stands as well as germination and seedling growth experiments, both in the field and in the greenhouse, of four red oak provenances (south-north gradient), with and without large herbivory, and along various soil nutrient levels following fertilization. Stands have similar age structures with red oak establishment coinciding with the last major fire disturbance in the area in the early 1920s. However, stands differ in regard to tree species composition and density, suggesting differences in fire disturbance regime or ecological succession status prior to fire. Site had the largest influence on red oak regeneration. Seedlings at the site with the highest tree density, LAI and soil water availability exhibited a 29 % higher survival rate. Protection against large herbivory also significantly impacted red oak seedling performance, leading to a 16 % higher survival rate as well as greater leaf size for three of the four provenances studied. Germination, survival and growth also significantly differed between provenances. The local (northernmost) provenance exhibited the poorest overall performance with 28 to 42 % lower germination, survival and growth rates in the two experiments, while the two southernmost provenances exhibited superior germination and sprout survival in the greenhouse and higher survival in the field. An increase in soil nutrient availability was beneficial to red oak in the greenhouse, but only marginally benefited survival and growth in the field, suggesting that this factor is of less importance than other factors (e.g. water and light availability) for red oak early regeneration. Our findings suggest that silvicultural efforts to favor red oak should focus on site and provenance selection, and that water availability is currently limiting red oak regeneration success at acorn and early seedling life stages (i.e. yearlings) near its northern distribution limit.