A presente pesquisa envolve um estudo teórico-experimental da transferência de calor e da perda de carga na condensação e no escoamento monofásico de fluidos refrigerantes halogenados no interior de lâminas com micro canais. Os ensaios consideram o fluido refrigerante puro R-134-a e a mistura quase azeotrópica R-410A. As lâminas estudadas envolvem micro canais de seção quadrada de Dh = 1,214 mm e de seção circular de Dh = 1,494 mm. Os ensaios de líquido subresfriado compreendem velocidades mássicas de 390 a 1360 Kg/sm2 para um temperatura de saturação de 40ºC e subresfriamento de 10ºC. Por sua parte, os ensaios foram realizados considerando um fluxo de calor constante de 5 kW/m2, títulos de vapor de 0,1 a 0,9, velocidades mássicas de 410 a 1135 kg/sm2, temperaturas de saturação de 40 a 50ºC e misturas óleo-refrigerante com concentrações de óleo em massa de 0,25 e 0,45%. Para cada condição de ensaio foram avaliados o coeficiente de transferência de calor e a queda de pressão por atrito na lâmina ensaiada. Os resultados para escoamento monofásico apresentaram consistência com relação às correlações típicas aplicáveis a transferência de calor e perda de carga para regime turbulento em tubos convencionais, apresentando, em média, valores de 12% superiores. Na maioria das condições de ensaios de condensação, segundo mapas de escoamento disponíveis na literatura, foi identificado o domínio do padrão estreitamento anular. Este comportamento foi aferido pelos resultados experimentais de perda de carga mostrando dependência quase exclusiva do parâmetro de Martinelli, e o mecanismo conectivo como principal mecanismo de transferência de calor, característico no padrão anular. Os resultados de condensação foram correlacionados a partir de abordagens empíricas em função do parâmetro de Martinelli e o conceito de velocidade mássica equivalente. Assim como, a partir de uma abordagem semi-empírica considerando um modelo anular que permite avaliar os mecanismos principais de transferência de calor e quantidade de movimento, avaliando a espessura do filme de líquido na parede do canal. Finalmente, os resultados experimentais e os obtidos a partir das correlações desenvolvidas são comparados com estudos disponíveis na literatura relativos a lâminas com micro canais. / This project involves a theoretical-experimental study of heat transfer and pressure drop in condensation and single phase flow of halogen refrigerants in microchannel tubes. The tests include the pure refrigerant R-134a and quasi azeotropic mixture R-410A. The microchannel tubes tested include one with square ports of Dh = 1,214 mm and other with circular port of Dh = 1,494 mm. The subcooled liquid tests considered the mass velocities of 390 to 1360 kg/sm2, the saturation temperature of 40ºC and subcooled of 10ºC. The condensing tests considered a constant heat flux of 5 kW/m2, vapor quality of 0,15 to 0,9, mass velocities of 410 to 1135 kg/sm2, saturation temperature of 40 to 50ºC and oil-refrigerant mixtures with oil mass concentrations of 0,25 and 0,45%. For each test condition was evaluated the coefficient of heat transfer and frictional pressure drop in the microchannel tube. The single phase results agree with typical correlations used in conventional tubes to evaluate the heat transfer and pressure drop in turbulent flow, even though the most of experimental date are 12% higher. The most of flow patterns in condensation were identified as annular using the flow patterns maps available on literature. This behavior was verified through pressure drop results, which show exclusive dependence on Martinelli Parameter. The heat transfer results show that the main heat transfer mechanism was convective, typical in annular flow. The results of condensation were correlated from empirical approachs using the Martinelli parameter and the equivalent mass velocity concept. And, also a semi-empirical approach modeling the annular flow to evaluate the mechanism of heat transfer through the liquid film around the wall of the tube. Finally, the experimental results and the results obtained through the models were compared with correlations referred to microchannels available on the literature.

Dans les grands systèmes de réfrigération, l’utilisation de réfrigérants comme lubrifiants, à la place des huiles, simplifie la conception du système, l’allège et réduit son impact environnemental. La très faible viscosité du réfrigérant conduit à une épaisseur de film séparant les deux surfaces comparable à leur rugosité. Néanmoins, des travaux expérimentaux avec le réfrigérant R1233zd suggèrent que la lubrification est possible dans ces conditions grâce à la formation d’une couche adsorbée sur la surface d’oxyde de fer. Les analyses expérimentales in situ dans le contact sont très difficiles à cause des conditions de fort confinement et haute pression. C’est pourquoi une approche numérique multi-échelles est développée, afin d’étudier l’impact des réactions physico-chimiques à l’interface réfrigérant-surface sur les propriétés de lubrification. La théorie de la fonctionnelle de la densité est utilisée pour quantifier au niveau quantique, l’adsorption d’une molécule de réfrigérant sur une surface d’oxyde de fer. Des énergies de liaison allant de -0.92 eV à -0.22 eV sont observées et reliées à différents cas d’adsorption. Ces résultats sont exploités pour paramétrer un champ de forces interfacial, qui prédit des structures moléculaires à l’interface, différentes de celles obtenues avec des potentiels basés sur les règles de mélange classiques. Des simulations de dynamique moléculaire utilisant ce champ de forces paramétré confirment l’existence d’une couche fortement adsorbée de R1233zd sur une surface d’oxyde de fer. Avec des surfaces atomiques lisses et seulement 2 nm d’épaisseur de film de réfrigérant, les couches adsorbées résistent à des pressions allant jusqu’à 4 GPa et des vitesses de cisaillement atteignant 100 m/s. Une valeur minimale de 5 molécules de réfrigérant par nm² est nécessaire à la formation de deux couches adsorbées à 0.5 GPa. De plus, des simulations en cisaillement avec une surface rugueuse prédisent une rupture totale du film à environ 13 GPa. / In large refrigeration systems, using the refrigerant as lubricant instead of oil can help to simplify the design, lighten the systems, and reduce their environmental impact. However, the very low viscosity of refrigerants leads to ultra-thin films separating the surfaces, with a thickness comparable to surface roughness. Nevertheless, experiments with the R1233zd refrigerant suggests that lubrication is still possible in that situation thanks to an adsorbed layer formed on iron oxide surfaces. Experimental in situ analysis area is very difficult because of high confinement and high pressure. That is why a multiscale numerical approach is developed here, to explore the impact of chemical reactions and physical processes at the refrigerant-surface interface on large-scale lubrication properties. Density functional theory is used to quantify the adsorption of a refrigerant molecule on an iron oxide surface at the quantum level. Binding energies ranging from -0.92 eV to -0.22 eV are measured and related to different adsorption cases. These results are then used to parametrize an interfacial force field, whose predictions of interfacial molecular structure differs from those obtained using potentials based on standard mixing rules. Large-scale molecular dynamics simulations involving this parametrized force field confirm the existence of a strongly adsorbed layer of R1233zd molecules on iron oxide surface. With atomically smooth surfaces, and a refrigerant film thickness as small as 2 nm, the adsorbed refrigerant layers resists pressures as high as 4 GPa and sliding velocities as high as 100 m/s. A minimum value of 5 refrigerant molecules per nm² is necessary to the formation of two adsorbed layers at 0.5 GPa. Moreover, sliding simulations with a rough surface reveal total film breakdown for ca. 13 GPa.

Ce travail a été réalisé en cotutelle entre l'Université Charles à Prague (République Tchèque) et l'Université de Strasbourg (France). Il a également profité d'une coopération entre l'Institut de Chimie Inorganique de l'Académie des Sciences de République Tchèque et le Commissariat à l'Énergie Atomique et aux Énergies Alternatives (CEA, Cadarache, France). Les résultats des travaux ont contribué au projet OCDE / AEN Serena 2 (Programme portant sur l'étude des effets d'une explosion de vapeur dans un réacteur nucléaire à eau). La thèse présentée se situe dans le domaine de la sûreté nucléaire et de la science des matériaux. Elle traite de l'Interaction Combustible-Réfrigérant (ICR, ou FCI en anglais pour Fuel-Coolant Interaction) susceptible d'intervenir lors d'un accident grave de réacteur nucléaire et actuellement à l'étude dans les programme de R&D. Au cours d'un accident de fusion d'un coeur de réacteur, les matériaux fondus peuvent interagir avec le liquide de refroidissement (eau légère), aussi appelé réfrigérant. Cette interaction peut se produire à l'intérieur de la cuve ou, en cas de rupture de celle-ci, à l'extérieur. Ces deux scénarios sont couramment appelés Interaction Combustible-Réfrigérant en- et hors- cuve et se distinguent de par les conditions du réacteur lors de l'accident : pression du système, degré de sous refroidissement de l'eau, etc. L'interaction entre le combustible fondu et le liquide de refroidissement peut évoluer vers une détonation thermique appelée "explosion de vapeur" qui peut endommager le réacteur, voire compromettre l'intégrité du confinement. Des expériences récentes ont montré que la composition du combustible a un effet majeur sur l'apparition et le rendement d'une telle explosion. En particulier, des comportements différents ont été observés entre un matériau simulant, l'alumine, qui explose très facilement, et diverses compositions de corium prototypique (80 m. % UO2, 20% m.% ZrO2). Cet "effet matériau" a suscité un intérêt nouveau pour les analyses post-expériences des débris issus de l'ICR afin de déterminer les mécanismes qui interviennent au cours de ces phénomènes extrêmement rapides. La thèse est organisée en neuf chapitres. Le chapitre 1 constitue une introduction générale et présente le contexte d'un accident grave d'un réacteur nucléaire. Quelques exemples d'accidents graves (Three Miles Island 1979, Tchernobyl 1986 et Fukushima 2011) sont brièvement abordés. Le chapitre 2 résume les aspects théoriques de l'interaction combustible-réfrigérant. Il est divisé en quatre parties correspondant aux quatre étapes généralement rencontrées lors du mécanisme d'ICR i) Prémélange - le combustible fondu, versé dans l'eau, se fragmente en gouttelettes grossières qui s'isolent d'un film de vapeur. ii) Déclenchement - le film de vapeur entourant les gouttes de combustible est déstabilisé, permettant ainsi la fragmentation fine du combustible. iii) Propagation - la fragmentation du combustible se propage à l'ensemble du prémélange, augmentant ainsi la surface de contact entre le combustible fondu et l'eau. Ceci conduit à une production intense de vapeur à grande échelle. iv) Expansion (explosion) - l'énergie thermique transférée du combustible à l'eau est transformée en travail mécanique de la vapeur.[...]

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:23:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2006-11-27Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T18:10:04Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 ferreira_ad_me_ilha.pdf: 1079421 bytes, checksum: dcb82443da323ec46bf3bd207a17001c (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Devido à solubilidade mútua entre o fluido refrigerante e o fluido lubrificante usados em sistemas de refrigeração por compressão de vapor, eles formam uma mistura homogênea que influencia tanto os processos de transferência de calor no evaporador e no condensador, como os processos de lubrificação e de selagem de vazamentos no interior do compressor. O vazamento de refrigerante através da folga radial de compressores rotativos de pistão rolante é de particular importância para o bom desempenho do compressor, uma vez que ele influencia significativamente a eficiência volumétrica do compressor, chegando a somar cerca de 30% das perdas totais de refrigerante. No presente trabalho foram desenvolvidos modelos de escoamento de misturas óleo-refrigerante através desta folga, incluindo a mudança de fase do refrigerante devida à variação da sua solubilidade no lubrificante. A solução da equação da energia constitui uma evolução do processo de modelagem deste escoamento em relação aos modelos até então desenvolvidos. Quatro modelos diferentes foram usados para simular o escoamento: modelo de escoamento bifásico homogêneo isotérmico, modelo de escoamento bifásico isotérmico com formação de espuma, modelo de escoamento bifásico homogêneo não-isotérmico e modelo de escoamento bifásico homogêneo não-isotérmico com termo de força inercial. O estudo foi realizado para três misturas óleo-refrigerante: óleo éster Freol a10 e refrigerante R134a, óleo éster EMKARATE RL10H e refrigerante R134a e óleo mineral SUNISO 1 GS e refrigerante R12. Para todos os modelos e misturas, realizou-se um estudo paramétrico envolvendo as principais variáveis do problema: pressão de entrada, temperatura de entrada, vazão de mistura e valor da folga mínima... / Due to the mutual solubility between the refrigerant and lubricant of refrigeration systems using mechanical compression of vapor, they form a homogeneous mixture which influences the heat transfer processes in the evaporator and condenser as well as the compressor lubrication and refrigerant leakage. The refrigerant leakage through the radial clearance of rolling piston compressors plays an important role to the volumetric efficiency in this type of compressor, in which it represents about 30% of the total refrigerant loss. In the present work several models to predict the lubricant-refrigerant mixture flow through this clearance, including the refrigerant phase change due to the reduction of the refrigerant solubility in the lubricant, are developed. Four different models were developed to simulate the flow: isothermal homogeneous two-phase flow, isothermal two-phase flow with foam formation, non-isothermal homogeneous two-phase flow and non-isothermal homogeneous two-phase flow containing inertial force. The simulations were performed for three mixtures: ester oil Freol a10-refrigerant R134a, ester oil EMKARATE RL10H-refrigerant R134a, and mineral oil SUNISO 1 GS-refrigerant R12. The influences of the inlet pressure, inlet temperature, mixture mass flow rate, and minimal clearance were analyzed for all mixtures. The results showed that it is important to consider the foam formation, the inertial force, and the solution of the energy equation in the flow modeling. Concerning the volumetric efficiency of the compressor the ester oil Freol a10-R134a was the best mixture because it produced the lowest refrigerant leakage.

A presente pesquisa envolve um estudo teórico-experimental da transferência de calor e da perda de carga na condensação e no escoamento monofásico de fluidos refrigerantes halogenados no interior de lâminas com micro canais. Os ensaios consideram o fluido refrigerante puro R-134-a e a mistura quase azeotrópica R-410A. As lâminas estudadas envolvem micro canais de seção quadrada de Dh = 1,214 mm e de seção circular de Dh = 1,494 mm. Os ensaios de líquido subresfriado compreendem velocidades mássicas de 390 a 1360 Kg/sm2 para um temperatura de saturação de 40ºC e subresfriamento de 10ºC. Por sua parte, os ensaios foram realizados considerando um fluxo de calor constante de 5 kW/m2, títulos de vapor de 0,1 a 0,9, velocidades mássicas de 410 a 1135 kg/sm2, temperaturas de saturação de 40 a 50ºC e misturas óleo-refrigerante com concentrações de óleo em massa de 0,25 e 0,45%. Para cada condição de ensaio foram avaliados o coeficiente de transferência de calor e a queda de pressão por atrito na lâmina ensaiada. Os resultados para escoamento monofásico apresentaram consistência com relação às correlações típicas aplicáveis a transferência de calor e perda de carga para regime turbulento em tubos convencionais, apresentando, em média, valores de 12% superiores. Na maioria das condições de ensaios de condensação, segundo mapas de escoamento disponíveis na literatura, foi identificado o domínio do padrão estreitamento anular. Este comportamento foi aferido pelos resultados experimentais de perda de carga mostrando dependência quase exclusiva do parâmetro de Martinelli, e o mecanismo conectivo como principal mecanismo de transferência de calor, característico no padrão anular. Os resultados de condensação foram correlacionados a partir de abordagens empíricas em função do parâmetro de Martinelli e o conceito de velocidade mássica equivalente. Assim como, a partir de uma abordagem semi-empírica considerando um modelo anular que permite avaliar os mecanismos principais de transferência de calor e quantidade de movimento, avaliando a espessura do filme de líquido na parede do canal. Finalmente, os resultados experimentais e os obtidos a partir das correlações desenvolvidas são comparados com estudos disponíveis na literatura relativos a lâminas com micro canais. / This project involves a theoretical-experimental study of heat transfer and pressure drop in condensation and single phase flow of halogen refrigerants in microchannel tubes. The tests include the pure refrigerant R-134a and quasi azeotropic mixture R-410A. The microchannel tubes tested include one with square ports of Dh = 1,214 mm and other with circular port of Dh = 1,494 mm. The subcooled liquid tests considered the mass velocities of 390 to 1360 kg/sm2, the saturation temperature of 40ºC and subcooled of 10ºC. The condensing tests considered a constant heat flux of 5 kW/m2, vapor quality of 0,15 to 0,9, mass velocities of 410 to 1135 kg/sm2, saturation temperature of 40 to 50ºC and oil-refrigerant mixtures with oil mass concentrations of 0,25 and 0,45%. For each test condition was evaluated the coefficient of heat transfer and frictional pressure drop in the microchannel tube. The single phase results agree with typical correlations used in conventional tubes to evaluate the heat transfer and pressure drop in turbulent flow, even though the most of experimental date are 12% higher. The most of flow patterns in condensation were identified as annular using the flow patterns maps available on literature. This behavior was verified through pressure drop results, which show exclusive dependence on Martinelli Parameter. The heat transfer results show that the main heat transfer mechanism was convective, typical in annular flow. The results of condensation were correlated from empirical approachs using the Martinelli parameter and the equivalent mass velocity concept. And, also a semi-empirical approach modeling the annular flow to evaluate the mechanism of heat transfer through the liquid film around the wall of the tube. Finally, the experimental results and the results obtained through the models were compared with correlations referred to microchannels available on the literature.

Pour être utilisé en réfrigération secondaire comme matériau à changement de phase dans un fluide frigoporteur, un hydrate doit posséder une enthalpie de dissociation élevée, à une température adaptée à l’application (positive pour de la climatisation) et à une pression acceptable pour une installation industrielle. De plus, le mélange diphasique doit présenter de bonnes conditions d’écoulement et d’échanges thermiques. Un dispositif dynamique constitué d'un réacteur agité et d'une boucle de circulation, placé dans une chambre climatique, a été développé pour l’étude de coulis d’hydrates de dioxyde de carbone. Pour ce dispositif, un protocole a été mis en œuvre pour le refroidissement d’une solution chargée en CO2, générant des coulis d'hydrate à taux d’hydrate allant jusqu'à 25°% véhiculant une chaleur latente importante (374 kJ.kg-1). Une étude cinétique sur la formation des hydrates de CO2 dans le réacteur agité à été réalisé et montre que la cinétique de formation de ces hydrates est de 2 %.h-1 dans le réacteur pour une pression, une température, et une vitesse d'agitation de départ de 3 MPa, 12 °C et 1042 tr/min et pour une température de consigne du groupe froid de -1 °C. L’étude rhéologique du coulis a permis de mettre en place une corrélation empirique de type Herschel-Bulkley en fonction du taux d’hydrates qui permet une caractérisation satisfaisante du comportement rhéologique du fluide. Les résultats de l’étude thermique ont permis d’établir des corrélations entre les nombres de Nusselt et de Reynolds qui caractérisent les régimes de fonctionnement thermique du système. / To be used as phase change material in a secondary refrigerant, a hydrate must enclose a high dissociation enthalpy, at a temperature adapted to the application (positive for air-conditioning) and a pressure suitable for an industrial facility. Moreover, the two-phase mixture must present good conditions of flowing and heat exchange. A dynamical set-up with a stirred tank reactor with a loop of circulation, placed in a thermostated room, was developed for the study of carbon-dioxide-hydrate slurries. In this set-up, one protocol was carried out: by cooling of a water-CO2 solution, generating slurries hydrate rates 25 %, conveying a high latent heat (374 kJ.kg-1). A study of CO2 hydrate formation kinetics was lead in the tank reactor and the results showed the CO2 hydrate formation kinetics is 2 %.h-1 for a pressure, temperature and a stirring rate at the begin of 3 MPa, 12°C and 1042°rpm and a temperature of the chiller about -1°C. A study rheological allows the development of an empirical Herschel-Bulkley-type correlation as a function of the hydrate rate was achieved for rheological characterization of the fluid behavior. The thermal results obtained allow establishing correlation as a function of Nusselt and Reynolds number which characterize operational regimes of the system thermal.

Une émulsion à changement de phase (PCME: phase-change material emulsion) est un fluide consistant en une émulsion d'un matériau à changement de phase (PCM, phase change material), comme de la paraffine, dispersé dans un fluide porteur (phase continue), souvent de l'eau ou une solution acqueuse de surfactant. Les PCME peuvent être envisagés comme fluides à haute performance thermique (frigoporteurs ou caloporteurs) en raison de leur potentiel de transport de chaleur latente (cristallisation ou fusion du PCM). Cette thèse présente des résultats expérimentaux concernant le comportement thermo-rheologique des differentes versions de PCME (émulsions de paraffine dans différentes solutions acqueuses de surfactant, avec une concentration massique en paraffine égale à 30 %) sur une plage de température de 0 - 20 °C. Les propriétés thermophysiques des émulsions ont été déterminées. Ensuite, une étude expérimentale du transfert de chaleur par convection forcée laminaire a été effectuée. Le coefficient de transfert de chaleur convectif de l'émulsion pendant le refroidissement a été déterminé dans une configuration expérimentale proche de celle pouvant être rencontrée dans des échangeurs thermiques à plaques. La configuration se compose principalement de deux canaux rectangulaires (80 x 6 mm²) de longueurs égale à 1 m. Des corrélations utiles pour évaluer les coefficients d'échange thermique (locaux ou globaux) ont été établies entre les nombres de Nusselt, de Reynolds et de Prandtl. Un banc d'essais spécifique a également été utilisé pour analyser le comportement rhéologique des PCME. Des essais ont été effectués à l'aide d'un viscosimètre à différentes températures. La stabilité des émulsions a été examinée sous diverses charges thermomécaniques. Les expériences ont révélé un comportement rheofluidisant. L'ensemble de ces résultats montre que les PCME sont des candidats prometteurs pour les applications à la climatisation. / A phase change material emulsion (PCME) is a fluid consisting of an emulsion of a phase change material (PCM), such as paraffin, dispersed in a carrier fluid (contiunuous phase), often water of an aqueous solution of surfactant. PCMEs can be considered as potential high performance thermal fluids (used as secondary refrigerants or as heat transport fluids) owing to their latent heat involved in the fusion of cristalisation of the PCM. This thesis reports experimental results concerning the thermo-rheological behavior of different versions of a PCME (30%wt. paraffin concentration in various acqueous solutions of surfactant) over the temperature range [0 – 20 °C]. The thermophysical properties of the PCMEs were determined. Then, an experimental study of forced convection heat transfer during laminar flow was carried out. The convective heat transfer coefficient of the PCMEs during cooling was determined in an experimental configuration mocking up applications in plate heat exchangers. The configuration mainly consists of two 1 m long rectangular channels (80 x 6 mm2). Correlations were developped for the prediction of the (local and overall) heat transfers coefficients, based on the Nussel, Reynolds and Prandtl numbers. A specific test bench was also used to analyse the rheological behaviour of the PCMEs. Tests were carried out using a viscometer at different temperatures. The stability of the emulsion was examined under various thermo-mechanical loads. Experiments revealed a pseudoplastic behavior for all tested versions of the PCME. All these results show that PCMEs are an attractive candidate for their applications in the field of air conditioning.

The subject of this diploma thesis is to apply the knowledge of thermodynamics when designing parameters of the train air conditioning unit. In the first part, the issue of air conditioning technology, basic types of cooling circuits and description of individual components are outlined. Furthermore, there is an overview of groups of refrigerants and their labelling. In the second part, a calculation of the heat load of the train unit for the limit design conditions of summer and winter operation, including the application of humid air theory are to be found. There is a basic procedure for designing the main components of compressor cooling, which is almost exclusively used in train applications, outlined. The last part contains the procedure for calculating the gains/losses in the distribution channels of the real air conditioning unit M7 and the evaluation of the results. In the appendix, there is an SW in MS Excel program, which can be indicatively used to calculate the total gains/losses of the distribution channels on any air-conditioning unit before the air enters into the train unit.

This diploma thesis deals with design of air-water heat pump which uses natural refrigerant, propane. In the thesis there are mentioned various types of devices using the source of low-potential heat for heating. The main part of the thesis is the design of the heat pump cooling circuit. In this section, individual components are designed, the calculation and comparison of the heating factor for different operating parameters is performed. Finally, the construction of the coolant circuit and the air exchanger is designed.

This thesis deals with issues of heat pumps for air conditioning purposes. Mainly addresses itself with physical principles of heat pumps and with division of heat pumps according to natural resources, from which they draw heat energy. The next part of this thesis dedicates itself to experimental measurement of air conditioning unit, which in winter time operates on the principle of heat pump. The last part of this thesis is focused on design of two options of employment of heat pumps as sources of heat and coldness for a central air handling unit, which regulates incoming air for a dining room in a retirement home in Brno.