The purpose of this study was to determine whether altering parameters of positive and negative reinforcement in identical ways could influence behavior maintained by each in different ways. Three undergraduate students participated in a series of assessments designed to identify preferred and aversive sounds with similar reinforcing values. Following reinforcer identification, we conducted parameter sensitivity assessments for both positive and negative reinforcers. Parameter manipulations influenced behavior in the same way across reinforcement processes for two participants. However, for one participant, the way in which parameter manipulations influenced behavior differed according to the reinforcement process. Our results suggest that, for at least some individuals, positive and negative sound reinforcement processes do not influence behavior in identical ways. Clinical and theoretical implications are discussed.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-29T13:17:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ghoeber Morales dos Santos.pdf: 4308037 bytes, checksum: f438d62ea4b9e0c2f2159b83652bc0b2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-05-24 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Superstitious behavior was first studied in 1948 by B.F. Skinner, whose work Superstition in the Pigeon was the startpoint to a series of research on this subject. This study was carried out to systematically replicate Lee (1996) and investigate if systematic changes in icon display on a computer screen could work as conditioned reinforcer to the response of clicking a mouse button in the same location on the screen. This could contribute to the standard set of superstitious responses observed by Lee (1996). The participants task was to obtain the highest scores possible by depressing the Up arrow key as soon as the five icons displayed on screen matched. The participants were not told what to do obtain the match. Icon change depended on the response of clicking the mouse button despite cursor location. The experiment had three phases. The participants task during phase 1 was to change the icon display on the computer screen by clicking the mouse button. The icon display changed according to a ratio schedule randomly selected from an array that ranged from 1:1 to 5:1, without repetitions, in which the first number is the number of clicks on the mouse button and the second number is an icon change. Therefore, n clicks on the mouse button (1 to 5) were necessary to produce changes in the icon display. The first four were related to icon display only. An icon match was always seen after the fifth click. During phase 2, following n clicks (that ranged from 1 to 30 randomly, without any repetitions) in which icon change was not observed, an FR 5 schedule controlled icon change the first four clicks changed icon display, although icons remained the same, and the fifth click produced icon match. In phase 3, the n value was randomly selected by the computer and performing this n clicks produced icon match. Twelve participants were divided into two groups: Group 1, with eight participants, went through phases 1, 2 and 3, while Group 2, with four participants, went through phases 3, 2 and 1. Two types of superstitious responses were identified: (1) clicking the mouse button on icons or in any other place on the screen that did not have icons and (2) location changes or location repetitions after a failure to change the icons and after icons changes. The majority of participants in Group 1 clicked over location zones that displayed the icons, as if these zones controlled icon match, while in Group 2 the zones that did not display icons were more likely to be used by participants. The sequence of phases to which each group of participants was exposed seems to have influenced the location of clicks. The different possibilities for initial n values in phases 1 and 3 seem to have influenced the occurrence of different performances. It was also observed that the majority of participants changed the location of the click after an icon change, despite the fact that icon match did not depend on changing click location. The pattern of superstitious responses observed by Lee (1996) - changing location after a failure to change the icons and repeating the same location after a click followed by an icon change - was not observed in this experiment. However, the four systematic changes in icon display right before icon match seem to have worked as conditioned reinforcers to clicking in the same location that was followed by the first change in icon display, as noticed in the performance of some participants during phase 2. The introduction of phase 3 did not prevent superstitious responses. In this phase, these responses seemed to be controlled only by icon match, and not by changes in icon display and icon match, as observed in phase 2 / O comportamento supersticioso foi primeiramente estudado em 1948 por B. F. Skinner, cujo trabalho Superstition in the Pigeon deu início a uma série de pesquisas envolvendo este tema. O presente trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de replicar sistematicamente o trabalho de Lee (1996) e investigar se mudanças sistemáticas na disposição de ícones na tela do computador poderiam ter funcionado como estímulos reforçadores condicionados para a resposta de emitir cliques numa mesma localização e, assim, ter contribuído para o padrão de respostas supersticiosas obtido por Lee (1996). A tarefa dos participantes era obter o maior número de pontos possível. Estes podiam ser obtidos pressionando-se a tecla Seta para cima no teclado do computador logo que cinco ícones presentes na tela ficassem iguais. Não foi dito aos participantes o que fazer para que os ícones se igualassem. A mudança dos ícones dependia da resposta de pressionar o botão do mouse, porém independia da localização na qual os cliques ocorriam. O experimento continha três fases. A tarefa dos participantes na Fase 1 era mudar a disposição dos ícones na tela do computador através de cliques no mouse. A mudança na disposição dos ícones nesta fase obedecia a um esquema de razão, selecionado randomicamente de um arranjo que ia de 1:1 até 5:1, sem repetição, sendo que o primeiro número representa um clique no mouse e o segundo número representa uma mudança nos ícones. Portanto, um número n de cliques no mouse (entre 1 e 5) era necessário para ocasionar mudanças na disposição dos ícones. As quatro primeiras mudanças que ocorriam se davam apenas na disposição dos ícones. Na quinta mudança sempre ocorria a igualação deles. Na Fase 2, após n cliques no botão do mouse (que variava de 1 a 30 de forma randômica e sem repetição) nos quais nenhuma mudança nos ícones ocorria, um esquema FR 5 controlava a mudança dos ícones, sendo que os quatro primeiros cliques no botão do mouse mudavam sua disposição (porém eles permaneciam os mesmos) e o quinto e último clique produzia a igualação dos ícones. Na Fase 3, após o valor de n sorteado pelo computador, ocorria uma igualação direta nos ícones. Doze participantes foram divididos em dois grupos: o Grupo 1, com oito participantes, passou pelas Fases 1, 2 e 3 enquanto o Grupo 2, com quatro participantes, passou pelas Fases 3, 1 e 2, respectivamente. Dois tipos de respostas supersticiosas foram identificados: (1) respostas de clicar sobre zonas de localização que continham ou não os ícones e (2) respostas de mudar a localização dos cliques após ocorrência de falha ou de mudança nos ícones. Foi observado que a maioria dos participantes do Grupo 1 clicou sobre zonas de localização que continham os ícones, como se estas zonas controlassem sua igualação, enquanto que no Grupo 2 as zonas que não continham os ícones foram as mais utilizadas pela maioria dos participantes deste grupo. A ordem das fases pelas quais cada grupo de participantes foi exposto parece ter influenciado no desempenho geral dos participantes no que se refere à localização dos cliques. Os diferentes valores de n iniciais possíveis de ocorrerem nas Fases 1 e 3 parecem ter colaborado para que estes diferentes desempenhos ocorressem. Também foi observado que a maioria dos participantes mudou a localização dos cliques quando estes foram seguidos de mudança nos ícones, a despeito da igualação dos ícones não depender de nenhuma mudança na localização dos cliques. O padrão de respostas supersticiosas encontrado por Lee (1996) - de variar a localização dos cliques quando eles eram seguidos por uma falha na mudança dos ícones e clicar numa mesma localização após um clique que era seguido de mudança dos ícones - não foi visto neste experimento. Porém, em alguns participantes constatou-se que, durante a Fase 2, as quatro mudanças sistemáticas que ocorriam na disposição dos ícones logo antes de ocorrer uma igualação parecem ter funcionado como estímulos reforçadores condicionados para a resposta de clicar na mesma localização do clique que foi seguido da primeira mudança na disposição dos ícones. A introdução da Fase 3 não impediu que respostas supersticiosas ocorressem. Nesta fase, estas respostas parecem ter ficado sob controle apenas da igualação dos ícones e não mais sob controle tanto das mudanças na disposição dos ícones quanto pela ocorrência de igualação, que ocorriam na Fase 2

In appetitive conditioning, a neutral stimulus (CS) is conditioned to elicit a positive emotional response by pairing it with a positive/appetitive unconditioned stimulus (US). This method is useful for studying emotional disorders and emotion in general. Studying appetitive conditioning in humans has been hampered by the lack of adequate positive unconditioned stimuli. This study investigated multimodal social stimuli as potential unconditioned stimuli in an appetitive conditioning paradigm. Neutral faces (CS+’giggle’ and CS+’woohoo’) were paired with two multimodal unconditioned stimuli consisting of the same smiling face and two different sound stimuli (US‘giggle’ and US‘woohoo’). The dependent variable was participant skin conductance response (SCR) alongside participant emotional ratings of the stimuli, that together indexes the conditioned response. CS+’giggle’ was hypothesized to be rated as happier, and less fearful than CS+’woohoo’. Successful conditioning was evidenced by higher happiness ratings for both stimuli after acquisition compared to habituation. However, no effect of acquisition was found on SCR.  US’woohoo’ was also rated as more fearful and arousing and less happy and pleasant than the US’giggle’. In sum, this thesis presents a paradigm that can be used in future studies on appetitive conditioning.

女性雜誌之出現，標舉將女性視為一特定閱聽眾。長期以來，女性受到父權意識型態的限制，權利義務被忽略，依附男性而生活，然而這種不平等的現象，隨著社會環境的變遷，而有緩和趨勢。而女性雜誌既為一「女性空間」，是否強化傳統的性別秩序，或呈現無刻板印象的性別角色，值得探討。 　　歷來探討大眾媒介和社會變遷關係的研究者，把其關係區分為三大類，包括反映者、強化者和促動者。但由於大眾媒介內容和社會環境變遷的時間，很難做清楚的劃分，對二者間的關係，至今仍莫衷一是。 　　本研究以創刊達二十五年的「婦女雜誌」為對象，企圖找出女性雜誌和女性價值變遷間的相關性。在相關研究中，可以發現，女性雜誌中所呈現的女性，基本仍偏向傳統形象，強調外貌、家庭比工作重要，研究焦點多半著重在人物描繪上。本研究則關切女性雜誌中的報導主題，及傳達的兩性價值和形象，是否因時間推移而有所改變。 　　研究結果發現，「婦女雜誌」中，以生活資訊報導量最多，但其所占比例逐年減少，同時安排位置也多半在整本雜誌的後半部，而偏向硬性的法律政治和社會議題，則呈逐年增加的情形，顯示「婦女雜誌」逐漸脫出傳統的窠臼，不再只把女性的關心焦點限囿在流行上，原屬男性領域的議題也日受重視。 　　「婦女雜誌」對兩性形象的呈現方式，仍以傳統角色占居主流，而代表較自由開放的形象，在女性方面，呈逐年增加的情形，而男性方面則呈逐年減少趨勢，顯示「婦女雜誌」在描繪女性時，鼓勵朝自由開放方向發展，而描繪男性時，則著重傳統性別秩序，但也鼓勵自由發展。 　　在兩性價值方面，「婦女雜誌」中所傳達的女性價值，朝向自由多元的方向發展，鼓勵女性做個有主見的人，但在男性價值方面，仍偏向傳統的價值，和根深柢固的男性形象相符合。 　　從社會背景變遷和「婦女雜誌」的報導內容來看，在民國59年以前，「婦女雜誌」偏向扮演社會變遷的促動者，到了民國60年開始，和社會變遷的時間差距拉近，反映者和強化者的角色開始突顯出來，但因時間不易明確劃分，促動者的角色也不能率爾去除。 　　從「婦女雜誌」的報導內容來看，在民國59年以前，父權意識型態色彩濃厚，但自民國60年開始，女性角色日益多元化，兩性關係也朝平等方向發展，顯示父權意識型態的威力已逐年減低。

The essential tenet of the behavioral momentum model (BMM) is that relative response rate decreases less in the face of disruption when maintained by a higher reinforcer density. Empirical support exists based on both response-dependent and response-independent reinforcement. In the present study the BMM was tested with college students in 4 multi-element experiments, each using 2 reinforcement schedules and a disrupter. Participants performed a categorical sort (by orientation) of triangles on a computer monitor. Sorting response rates were disrupted by a concurrent task, pressing the keyboard “T” key whenever 2 displayed changing numbers were equal. Initial training established fast (under VR 4) and slow (under DRL 5-s) sorting rates, and provided practice with the disrupting task. In Experiment 1 DRL 5-s provided higher reinforcer density, while in Experiment 2 VR 4 did. In Experiment 3 the higher total reinforcer density was achieved by adding VT 6-s to DRL 5-s while in Experiment 4 it was achieved by adding VT 12-s to VR 4. In all 4 experiments, sorting rate decreased with introduction of the disrupter. In Experiments 1 and 3, relative sorting rate decreased less under DRL based schedule (greater reinforcer density), supporting the BMM. However, in Experiments 2 and 4, relative sorting also decreased less under DRL (lower reinforcer density), contrary to the BMM prediction. Taken together, these data show greater relative resistance to change under DRL (versus VR), independent of reinforcer density. Thus, contrary to the BMM, the nature of the reinforcement schedule seemed to be the principal factor determining behavioral momentum. / May 2009

The essential tenet of the behavioral momentum model (BMM) is that relative response rate decreases less in the face of disruption when maintained by a higher reinforcer density. Empirical support exists based on both response-dependent and response-independent reinforcement. In the present study the BMM was tested with college students in 4 multi-element experiments, each using 2 reinforcement schedules and a disrupter. Participants performed a categorical sort (by orientation) of triangles on a computer monitor. Sorting response rates were disrupted by a concurrent task, pressing the keyboard “T” key whenever 2 displayed changing numbers were equal. Initial training established fast (under VR 4) and slow (under DRL 5-s) sorting rates, and provided practice with the disrupting task. In Experiment 1 DRL 5-s provided higher reinforcer density, while in Experiment 2 VR 4 did. In Experiment 3 the higher total reinforcer density was achieved by adding VT 6-s to DRL 5-s while in Experiment 4 it was achieved by adding VT 12-s to VR 4. In all 4 experiments, sorting rate decreased with introduction of the disrupter. In Experiments 1 and 3, relative sorting rate decreased less under DRL based schedule (greater reinforcer density), supporting the BMM. However, in Experiments 2 and 4, relative sorting also decreased less under DRL (lower reinforcer density), contrary to the BMM prediction. Taken together, these data show greater relative resistance to change under DRL (versus VR), independent of reinforcer density. Thus, contrary to the BMM, the nature of the reinforcement schedule seemed to be the principal factor determining behavioral momentum.

The essential tenet of the behavioral momentum model (BMM) is that relative response rate decreases less in the face of disruption when maintained by a higher reinforcer density. Empirical support exists based on both response-dependent and response-independent reinforcement. In the present study the BMM was tested with college students in 4 multi-element experiments, each using 2 reinforcement schedules and a disrupter. Participants performed a categorical sort (by orientation) of triangles on a computer monitor. Sorting response rates were disrupted by a concurrent task, pressing the keyboard “T” key whenever 2 displayed changing numbers were equal. Initial training established fast (under VR 4) and slow (under DRL 5-s) sorting rates, and provided practice with the disrupting task. In Experiment 1 DRL 5-s provided higher reinforcer density, while in Experiment 2 VR 4 did. In Experiment 3 the higher total reinforcer density was achieved by adding VT 6-s to DRL 5-s while in Experiment 4 it was achieved by adding VT 12-s to VR 4. In all 4 experiments, sorting rate decreased with introduction of the disrupter. In Experiments 1 and 3, relative sorting rate decreased less under DRL based schedule (greater reinforcer density), supporting the BMM. However, in Experiments 2 and 4, relative sorting also decreased less under DRL (lower reinforcer density), contrary to the BMM prediction. Taken together, these data show greater relative resistance to change under DRL (versus VR), independent of reinforcer density. Thus, contrary to the BMM, the nature of the reinforcement schedule seemed to be the principal factor determining behavioral momentum.

Reinforcer assessments have largely relied on the use of progressive ratio (PR) schedules to identify stimuli that function as reinforcers. PR schedules evaluate the reinforcing efficacy of a stimulus by measuring the number of responses produced in order to access a stimulus as the number of required responses increases. The current evaluation extends the literature on reinforcer assessments by measuring responding under a progressive force (PF) schedule, in addition to progressive ratio requirements. We compared responding under PR and PF schedules with two children with autism using a multielement design embedded within a reversal experimental design. Results were mixed and implications for further development of reinforcer assessment methods (particularly PF schedules) are discussed.