Le neuroblastome (NB) est une tumeur pédiatrique du système nerveux sympathique. Des mutations activatrices du gène ALK (Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase) ont été identifiées dans 8 % des formes sporadiques et dans des formes familiales de NB. Le gène ALK code pour un récepteur tyrosine kinase appartenant à la famille des récepteurs à l’insuline, principalement exprimé dans le système nerveux central et périphérique. Le récepteur ALK représente une cible thérapeutique pertinente dans ce cancer. Des mutations de novo du gène ALK ont également été rapportées dans une forme syndromique associant NB congénital et encéphalopathie sévère avec dysmorphie du tronc cérébral, suggérant un rôle développemental du gène ALK en plus de son implication dans l’oncogenèse.Dans ce contexte, mon projet de thèse avait pour but de déterminer le rôle du récepteur ALK muté dans l’oncogenèse du NB et le développement, principalement à l’aide de modèles murins originaux obtenus au laboratoire. J’ai ainsi largement caractérisé deux lignées de souris KI (Knock-In) Alk pour les deux mutations les plus fréquemment observées dans le NB: F1174L et R1275Q chez l’homme, correspondant à F1178L et R1279Q chez la souris.Une analyse détaillée de ces deux lignées de souris n’a pas révélé de phénotype majeur chez les souris KI AlkR1279Q hétérozygotes et homozygotes ainsi que chez les hétérozygotes KI AlkF1178L. Par contre, nous avons documenté une forte létalité post-natale des animaux KI AlkF1178L homozygotes et montré que ces nouveaux-nés présentent des troubles majeurs d’alimentation. Les homozygotes KI AlkF1178L phénocopient donc partiellement les patients encéphalopathes. La différence d’effet observé entre les animaux hétérozygotes et homozygotes suggère fortement qu’il existe un seuil d’activation du récepteur Alk compatible avec la survie.Nous avons ensuite exploré le rôle du récepteur ALK muté dans le système nerveux sympathique des souris KI Alkmut. Cette analyse a montré que l’activation du récepteur induit un excès de prolifération des neurones sympathiques de E14.5 à la naissance. Néanmoins, nous n’avons pas observé de NB chez ces animaux. En croisant ces souris avec la lignée TH-MYCN, nous avons documenté une coopération des mutations Alk avec l’oncogène MYCN pour le développement de NB. La comparaison des profils transcriptomiques des tumeurs murines MYCN et MYCN/Alkmut a révélé que l’expression de l’oncogène Ret (codant également un récepteur à activité tyrosine kinase) était fortement induite par l’activation du récepteur Alk. Le traitement des souris par un inhibiteur de l’activité kinase du récepteur Ret a montré une diminution de la taille des tumeurs suggérant que le gène Ret joue un rôle majeur dans l’oncogenèse induite par le récepteur Alk muté. Par ailleurs, l’induction de l’expression du gène RET par le récepteur ALK muté dans les NB a été confirmée dans des lignées et des tumeurs humaines.Afin de déterminer le mécanisme par lequel l’activation du récepteur ALK aboutit à la régulation de l’expression du gène RET des expériences ont été effectuées sur des lignées humaines de NB dans lesquelles le récepteur ALK peut être activé ou inactivé. Ce travail a montré que l’expression du gène RET est dépendante de l’axe ALK-ERK-ETV5. En effet, la modulation de l’activité du récepteur ALK affecte l’expression des gènes ETV5 et RET. Cet effet est dépendant de l’activation de la voie MEK/ERK. Par ailleurs, ETV5 active l’expression du gène RET. Afin de confirmer le rôle de Ret dans l’oncogenèse dépendante du récepteur Alk, nous avons croisé des souris portant une mutation activatrice de Ret avec les souris TH-MYCN. Nous avons ainsi mis en évidence que le récepteur Ret activé coopère avec l’oncogène MYCN dans le développement de tumeurs et que ces tumeurs sont des NB présentant des caractéristiques très semblables à celles des tumeurs MYCN/Alkmut. Le gène Ret apparaît donc comme une cible essentielle du récepteur Alk muté dans l’oncogenèse du NB. / Neuroblastoma (NB) is a pediatric tumor arising from the sympathetic nervous system. Activating mutations of the ALK gene have been observed in around 8 % of sporadic neuroblastoma as well as in familial cases. The ALK gene encodes a tyrosine kinase receptor of the insulin receptor super-family. It is mainly expressed in the central and peripheral nervous system. The ALK receptor represents a therapeutic target in this cancer. De novo ALK mutations have also been reported in a syndrome associating congenital NB and severe encephalopathy with abnormal shape of the brainstem, suggesting a developmental role for the ALK gene in addition to its implication in oncogenesis.In this context, my PhD project was to determine the role of the mutated ALK receptor in NB oncogenesis and in development, mainly with original mouse models obtained in the laboratory. I extensively characterized two knock-in (KI) Alk mouse lines with the two mutations that are most frequently observed in NB: F1174L and R1275Q in human and F1178L and R1279Q in mouse.A detailed analysis of these two mouse lines showed that the KI AlkR179Q heterozygous and homozygous mice as well as the KI AlkF1178L heterozygous mice do not show striking clinical signs. On the contrary, we documented a high postnatal lethality for KI AlkF1178L homozygous mice and showed that these pups presented with a dramatic reduced milk intake. Thus, the KI AlkF1178L homozygous mice partially phenocopy the human patients with encephalopathy. The difference of phenotype between the heterozygous and the homozygous KI AlkF1178L mice highly suggest a threshold of activity of the Alk receptor compatible with survival.We then explored the role of the mutated ALK receptor in the sympathetic nervous system of the KI Alkmut mice. This analysis showed that the activation of the receptor induces an excess of proliferation in sympathetic neurons from E14.5 to birth. However, we could not observe NB in these animals. We next bread these mice with the transgenic TH-MYCN line. We documented cooperation between Alk mutations and the MYCN oncogene to induce NB. Comparison of transcriptomic profiles of MYCN vs MYCN/Alkmut tumors revealed that the expression of the Ret oncogene (encoding a tyrosine kinase receptor) was strongly induced by the activation of the Alk receptor. Besides, the induction of the expression of the RET gene by the mutated ALK receptor in NB was confirmed in human cell lines and tumors.In order to determine the mechanism by which the activation of the ALK receptor regulates RET gene expression, experiments were done on human NB cell lines in which the ALK receptor can be activated or inactivated. This work showed that RET gene expression is dependent of the ALK-ERK-ETV5 axis. Indeed, the modulation of the ALK receptor activity affects gene expression of ETV5 and RET. This effect is dependent of the activation of the MEK/ERK pathway. Besides, ETV5 increases RET gene expression. In order to confirm the role of the Ret receptor in oncogenesis driven by the mutated Alk receptor, we bread mice bearing an activating mutation of the Ret gene with the TH-MYCN mice. We showed that the activated Ret receptor cooperates with the MYCN oncogene in tumor formation and that these tumors are NB presenting with characteristics very close to MYCN/Alkmut tumors. Thus, the Ret gene appears to be an essential target of the mutated Alk receptor in NB oncogenesis.

O presente trabalho avalia as alterações de propriedades dos asfaltos pela modificação por polímero do tipo RET (Reactive Elastomeric Terpolymer) e de comportamento de misturas asfálticas densas usinadas com estes asfaltos modificados. Para atingir este objetivo, são apresentados os resultados do monitoramento realizado no trecho experimental executado na SP-330, Rodovia Anhanguera, que empregou este tipo de asfalto modificado e estudo que compreende a modificação de ligantes do tipo CAP20 e CAP40 com 1,0%, 1,5% e 2%, de polímero RET, com posterior dosagem de uma mistura na Faixa III do DERSA no teor considerado como o mais adequado. Para verificação das propriedades mecânicas desta mistura, foram realizados ensaios de Módulo se Resiliência, Resistência à Tração por Compressão Diametral e Resistência à Deformação Permanente em simulador do tipo LPC. / The present document presents the alterations of the properties of the polymer modified asphalts using the polymer RET (Reactive Elastomeric Terpolymer) and the behavior of dense asphaltic mixtures using these modified asphalts. To reach this objective, the monitoring results accomplished in the experimental tram executed in SP-330, Rodovia Anhanguera, that used this type of modified asphalt are presented. The study comprehends the modification of the CAP20 and CAP40 asphalts with 1,0%, 1,5% and 2,0% of RET polymer, with subsequent dosage of a mixture in the Grade III of DERSA applying the RET polymeric proportion considered more appropriate. For the verification of the mechanical properties of this mixtures, Resilience Module, Traction Resistance for Diametrical Compression and Permanent Deformation Resistance in a LPC type simulator were accomplished.

Unusual DNA secondary structures, especially G-quadruplexes and i-motifs, play important roles in gene transcriptional regulation and have been identified as novel drug targets. In this dissertation, I explored their formation in the human VEGF and RET promoters and their roles in gene transcriptional regulation. VEGF is a key regulator of angiogenesis and is up-regulated in many types of tumors. A poly-guanine/poly-cytosine (polyG/polyC) tract in its proximal promoter (-85 to -50 base pairs relative to the transcription starting site) is essential for both basal and inducible VEGF expression. I demonstrated that the guanine-rich (G-rich) and cytosine-rich (C-rich) strands in the VEGF proximal promoter are able to form G-quadruplex and i-motif structures, respectively. The major G-quadruplex formed by the VEGF G-rich sequence is an intramolecular parallel G-quadruplex containing three G-tetrads and a 1:4:1 arrangement of three double-chain-reversal loops (two single-base loops and one loop with four bases). The complementary C-rich sequence in the same region forms an intramolecular i-motif containing six semiprotonated cytosine-cytosine⁺ base pairs and a 2:3:2 loop configuration (two double-base loops and one loop with three bases). The Gquadruplexes formed by the native VEGF G-rich and its derivative sequences were also confirmed by NMR. In addition, various transcription factors including Sp1, hnRNP K, CNBP and nucleolin, which recognize different DNA structural elements including single-stranded, double-stranded or G-quadruplex/i-motif DNA in the VEGF proximal promoter, have been confirmed by EMSA, siRNA and chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assay, suggesting that the DNA in the VEGF proximal promoter region is capable of undergoing transitions between those three structures. Based on my studies, I have proposed a model to describe how various transcription factors recognize different DNA structures in the VEGF proximal promoter to regulate transcription. In the proximal promoter of another important oncogene RET, I demonstrated that the guanine-rich strand forms an intramolecular parallel G-quadruplex containing three G-tetrads and a 1:3:1 arrangement of three double-chain-reversal loops. The complementary cytosine-rich strand forms an i-motif structure containing six semiprotonated cytosine-cytosine⁺ base pairs and a 2:3:2 loop configuration. Moreover, G-quadruplex-interactive compounds TMPyP4 and telomestatin were shown to further stabilize the RET G-quadruplex structure.

In recent years, there has been a major movement in the pharmaceutical industry towards the development of molecules that selectivity inhibit a previously-validated specific target. This is referred to as target-based drug discovery. It was hoped that adopting this approach would usher in a new golden age of drug discovery. However, this has not been the case, with issues arising such as the target’s mechanism of action being poorly understood, with it not playing the expected role in the disease progression, or feedback resistance mechanisms causing the target to lose its role in the disease. In contrast to this, in the past 20 years it has been argued that developing drugs in a target-agnostic way and screening them against an expressed phenotype i.e. phenotypic drug discovery, has been more successful, despite fewer programs being run in the manner. The AXL kinase is a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) and a member of the TAM family, along with MER and TYRO3. AXL has long been associated with numerous types of cancer. Having been first discovered in 1991 in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML), it has gone on to be more associated with advanced solid tumours such as brain, breast, and lung, with the trend being that increased AXL correlates with a poorer prognosis for the patient. Upon the activation of AXL by the vitamin K ligand GAS6, a series of downstream pathways are activated that go on to encourage cell survival, proliferation, and migration. In addition to this, AXL has been shown to be involved in crosstalk with other kinase pathways, resulting in AXL expression being associated with chemoresistance and survival mechanisms. Despite the promising outlook for AXL inhibitors, to date only one selective AXL inhibitor, BGB324 (formally R428) has entered clinical trials, with selective AXL inhibitors being difficult to develop due to a lack of a crystal structure or a reliable homology model. To address the aforementioned issues that target-based approaches can suffer from, and due to AXL lacking a crystal structure, the work in this thesis utilised a pragmatic drug design method that started from ligands/existing scaffolds known to inhibit the target from the literature (publications, clinical trials and patents). A series of small libraries were prepared and then tested against a selected phenotype e.g. cell viability, in at least two cell types: one that expressed the target (e.g. AXL) and one that did not. Hits were optimised for potency against the desired phenotype. The compounds then went through target deconvolution (kinase screening) to confirm the target of the inhibitors. Employing this approach, we initially synthesised two small libraries of potential AXL inhibitors. The potency of these compounds was tested using cell-based phenotypic assays, by evaluating cell viability in both native and chemo-resistant breast cancer cells. These libraries were optimised through focused combinatorial synthesis and phenotypic screening, to yield a small collection of antiproliferative hits. These hits were then profiled against a panel of twelve select kinases. The first library, while giving some important structural information, did not inhibit the kinases screened in a meaningful manner. However, the second library gave several potent compounds, inhibiting AXL, FLT3, and RET, with one compound being selective for AXL. The leads from this series were optimised further, through SAR studies, gaining important structural information in order to improve potency and selectivity of the compounds. The flexibility of the phenotypic cell-based approach allowed the pursuit of FLT3 inhibitors, resulting in the synthesis of one of the most potent FLT3 inhibitors synthesised to date.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-29T14:11:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 tese_4543_.pdf: 649757 bytes, checksum: 2833308aef972a8606be44d467051ade (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-02-28 / O objetivo desta pesquisa é contribuir para a elucidação dos conteúdos temáticos e ideológicos dos poemas de Augusto dos Anjos. Serão abordadas aqui suas referências científicas e religiosas, seu misticismo, as pulsões psicanalíticas, a retórica, a angústia do eu poético augustiano e a morte. A fonte básica deste estudo é a coletânea Eu e Outras Poesias, de Augusto dos Anjos. A análise dos poemas contidos nessa obra pretende proporcionar um panorama sobre a complexidade desse poeta que muitas vezes é classificado como pré-modernista.

Cells process a wide range of signals by means of multi-component receptors that span the plasma membrane. Our knowledge about the individual proteins involved in these signaling cascades has grown considerably over recent years. However, critical information about the detailed mechanisms of receptor activation, and the quantitative relationships between stimulus and biological response, is still missing. Here, I used the RET receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), together with its glycosylphosphatidylinositol-coupled co-receptor GFRα3 and their activating growth factor artemin (ART), as a model system to investigate the quantitative and mechanistic features of receptor activation and signaling. I used a set of anti-RET agonist antibodies to induce different extents of receptor clustering on the cell surface, and studied how this factor affects the amplitude and kinetics of membrane-proximal and downstream signaling events, as well as the biological response of neurite outgrowth. Using simulations of the RET-GFRα3-ART system, I studied the effect of co-receptor involvement in the activation mechanism, as well as the importance of the specific activation pathway for the RET system’s response to variations in the expression levels of different components. The principal findings of my work include the following: 1) Higher order receptor clustering is required for full RET activation, as well as for the biological response of neurite outgrowth. 2) The activated forms of the receptor brought about by the agonist antibodies and by ART plus GFRα3 are identical with respect to the ability to activate the transient extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and Akt responses, but the antibodies show a reduced ability to induce sustained activation of ERK, Akt or c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). 3) The involvement of GFRα3 co-receptor in the activation mechanism of RET provides cells with the ability to regulate their sensitivity to ligand without affecting the maximum amplitude of the pRET response. 4) This effect is limited if the co-receptor GFRα3 is pre-dimerized. Overall, my work aims to elucidate broad principles that underlie the quantitative relationships between RET activation, signaling, and the resulting cellular functional response, that can be applied to other receptor systems.

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Les cancers papillaires de la thyroïde (PTC) sont les tumeurs endocrines les plus courantes et représentent 2-3% de tous les cancers humains. Les altérations génétiques les plus pertinentes trouvées dans ces tumeurs sont des mutations dans les gènes BRAF et RAS, et des translocations du gène RET. Ces translocations oncogéniques, connues sous le nom de RET/PTC, résultent de la fusion de RET avec des gènes partenaires non-apparentés. L’exposition aux radiations ionisantes est le facteur de risque le plus important pour la formation de RET/PTC. Durant ces dernières années, notre groupe a mis en évidence un rôle crucial des espèces réactives de l'oxygène (ROS) dans la formation de RET/PTC dans des cellules thyroïdiennes in vitro et a notamment montré que l'irradiation (IR) induit l’établissement d’un stress oxydatif persistant du aux ROS produites par la NADPH Oxydase DUOX1, laquelle est induite à post-IR. Cela conduit à des dommages à l'ADN. Les enfants présentent un risque significativement plus élevé de développer des cancers radio-induits de la thyroïde exprimant RET/PTC, probablement en raison du taux de prolifération élevé des cellules. Ceci suggère que la dynamique de réplication pourrait être impliquée dans la formation de la translocation RET/PTC1. En effet, il a été montré que l'induction pharmacologique d’un stress réplicatif peut favoriser la formation de RET/PTC in vitro dans les cellules thyroïdiennes. Ainsi, pour déterminer si un stress réplicatif peut contribuer aux effets à long terme de l'irradiation: à savoir une persistance des lésions de l'ADN et la formation de RET/PTC1, nous avons analysé les effets à post-IR dans les cellules NTHY-ori3.1. Nos résultats confirment qu’une irradiation des cellules aux rayons X à la dose de 5 Gy induit deux vagues de stress oxydatif: une première vague forte mais transitoire qui se produit dans les minutes qui suivent l'irradiation et une deuxième vague dont l’ augmentation débute 2 jours après l'irradiation pour persister ensuite. Ces deux pics de stress oxydatif conduisent à deux pics de dommages à l'ADN. L'irradiation des cellules à cette dose n’a aucun effet sur la prolifération et sur la progression du cycle cellulaire. Cependant, plusieurs marqueurs de stress réplicatif sont exprimés trois jours après l'irradiation. Par ailleurs, l'analyse de la dynamique de réplication révèle une diminution de la vitesse de réplication à post-IR qui est contrecarrée par les antioxydants, suggérant qu’un stress oxydatif peut contribuer à un stress réplicatif. Enfin, par ChIP-QPCR, nous observons que les gènes impliqués dans RET/PTC1 présentent plus de cassures double brin que des gènes endogènes, et ce, trois jours après l'irradiation. Ainsi, nous proposons qu’un stress réplicatif induit par un stress oxydatif pourrait être potentiellement impliqué dans l'étiologie des tumeurs RET/PTC-positives. / Papillary thyroid cancers (PTC) are the most common endocrine tumors and account for 2-3% of all human cancers. The most relevant genetic alterations found in these tumors are mutations in the genes BRAF and RAS, and chromosomal translocations in RET, a proto-oncogene activated in 15-20% of PTCs. These oncogenic translocations, known as RET/PTCs, result from the fusion of RET with unrelated partner genes. Ionizing radiation is a major risk factor for RET/PTC formation, however, the molecular mechanisms involved in these radioinduced translocations just begun to be unveiled. In the past few years, our group has reported a critical role for reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the formation of RET/PTC in thyroid cells in vitro and has also shown that irradiation can elicit a persistent oxidative stress caused by the upregulation of the NADPH Oxidase DUOX1 that leads to DNA damage, mediating at least part of the effects of radiation. However, how could ROS lead to the formation of RET/PTC is not fully understood. Children are at significantly higher risk of developing radio-induced thyroid tumors, specially RET/PTC positive, probably due to the intense proliferation rate of their follicular thyroid cells. This epidemiological observation prompts the assumption that replication dynamics may be involved in RET/PTC formation. Indeed, it has been shown that the pharmacological induction of replicative stress can stimulate the in vitro formation of RET/PTC in thyroid cells. Thus, to investigate whether replicative stress might contribute for the long-term effects of irradiation on DNA damage and RET/PTC formation, we analyzed the effects of radiation in NTHY-ori3.1 thyroid cell lineage in terms of oxidative and replicative stress and replication dynamics. Our results confirm that irradiation triggers two waves of oxidative stress: first, a strong but transient oxidative burst takes place minutes after irradiation and next, a persistently increased oxidative stress that starts only 2 days after irradiation. These two peaks of oxidative stress lead to two peaks of DNA damage. Irradiation caused little or no effect on proliferation nor on cell cycle progression. However, several protein markers of replicative stress, such as pATR, pATM, pChk1 and pRPA are induced three days after irradiation. Moreover, replication dynamics analysis revealed a diminished replication speed that has been reversed by antioxidants, suggesting that oxidative stress may contribute to replication defects. Finally, using ChIP-qPCR, we observed that the genes involved in RET/PTC1 translocation present more double-stranded breaks than RET/PTC-unrelated genes 3 days after irradiation. Hence, we propose that replicative stress is potentially involved in the etiology of RET/PTC-positive tumors. / HECHT, Fabio. The role of reactive oxygen species in thyroid radio-carcinogenesis. Rio de Janeiro, 2018. Doctoral thesis - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil and Université Paris-Saclay, Orsay, France, 2018.O câncer papilífero de tireoide é o tumor endócrino mais comum e corresponde a 2-3% de todos os cânceres humanos. As alterações genéticas mais relevantes relacionadas a esse tumor são mutações nos genes BRAF e RAS e translocações do gene RET, um proto-oncogene ativado em 15-20% dos tumores papilíferos. Essas translocações, conhecidas como RET/PTC, resultam da fusão de RET com diversos outros genes. A radiação ionizante é um importante fator de risco para a formação de RET/PTC, no entanto, o mecanismo molecular responsável por essa translocação radioinduzida ainda não foi elucidado. Nos últimos anos, nosso grupo demonstrou um papel crítico exercido pelas espécies reativas de oxigênio na formação de RET/PTC em células tireoidianas in vitro e também mostrou que a irradiação promove um estresse oxidativo persistente causado pelo aumento de expressão da NADPH Oxidase DUOX1, levando à dano ao DNA, mediando assim parte dos efeitos da radiação. No entanto, como o ROS leva à formação de RET/PTC ainda não é compreendido. Crianças possuem um risco significativamente mais alto de desenvolver tumores tireodianos após a irradiação, especialmente RET/PTC positivos, provavelmente em função da intensa proliferação das células tireodianas. Essa associação sugere que a replicação esteja envolvida na formação de RET/PTC. De fato, foi observado que a indução farmacológica de estresse replicativo pode estimular a formação in vitro de RET/PTC em células tireodianas. Portanto, para investigar se o estresse replicativo contribui com os efeitos da irradiação no longo prazo sobre o dano ao DNA e formação de RET/PTC, nós investigamos o papel da radiação sobre o estresse oxidativo e replicativo, além da dinâmica de replicação de linhagem de células tireodianas NTHY-ori 3.1. Nossos resultados confirmam que a irradiação desencadeia duas ondas de estresse oxidativo: primeiramente, um forte, mas transitório pico de espécies reativas de oxigênio é observado minutos após a irradiação, seguido por um novo e persistente pico que só é observado a partir de dois dias após a irradiação. Esses dois picos de estresse oxidativo resultam em dois picos de dano ao DNA. A irradiação causou pouco ou nenhum efeito na proliferação ou na progressão do ciclo celular. No entanto, vários marcadores de estresse replicativo foram observados três dias após a irradiação, como pATR, pATM, pChk1 e pRPA. Além disso, a análise da dinâmica de replicação mostrou uma diminuição na velocidade da replicação que foi revertida por antioxidantes, sugerindo que o estresse oxidativo contribui para distúrbios dos mecanismos replicativos. Por fim, utilizando ChIP-qPCR, nós observamos que os genes envolvidos na translocação RET/PTC possuem mais quebras duplas do que genes endógenos, dias após a irradiação. Portanto, propomos que o estresse replicativo está potencialmente envolvido na etiologia dos tumores RET/PTC positivos.