The purpose of this phenomenological study was to examine the lived experiences and perceptions of principals in elementary schools regarding conflicts with teachers. In addition, this dissertation focused on four social science theories to analyze the findings of this study including: systems, social constructionism, symbolic interactionism, and functionalism. Through this five chapter dissertation, the researcher examined the lived experiences and elementary principals’ perceptions and 1) explored the root causes of conflicts among teachers and principals, 2) determined the challenges these principals face with teachers, 3) gathered reasons why the phenomenon has been overlooked, 4) examined the power of negative emotions within the conflict process among principals and teachers, and 5) analyzed conflict resolution approaches used by principals when addressing teacher conflicts. From the study, five major themes were identified. In addition, three objectives governed this study. The first objective was to provide an understanding of the lived experiences of conflicts among principals and teachers from a principal’s perspective. The second objective was to explore perceptions of principals about the impacts of conflicts between principals and teachers on students. The third objective was to gain knowledge that will contribute to more effective ways to address conflicts between principals and teachers. This study concluded with providing both theoretical and methodological implications for future research studies along with recommendations for principals on ways to manage conflict with teachers.

Esta tese teve por objeto analisar a viabilidade de implementação de, no âmbito do sistema de solução de controvérsias (SSC) da OMC, um mecanismo de contramedidas (retaliação) coletiva, à luz da teoria de formação de alianças, tal qual desenvolvida na teoria de relações internacionais. O objetivo foi perquirir se e em que condições poderão se formar coalizões visando à aplicação de retaliação coletiva, caso tal mecanismo seja incorporado ao SSC/OMC. A tese se baseou na premissa de que o enforcement do SSC/OMC ainda se funda em soluções de self-help, ou seja, dependente da força, do poder, do Membro demandante de induzir o Membro demandado a cumprir as recomendações do Órgão de Solução de Controvérsias (OSC), mediante a aplicação de retaliação bilateral, centrada na reciprocidade. Observa-se todavia uma insuficiência e/ou ineficácia de tais contramedidas bilaterais para induzir o Membro demandado a cumprir com as recomendações do OSC em situações envolvendo desequilíbrio de poder (entre Membro demandante e Membro demandado). A teoria de formação de alianças se mostrou adequada para a análise pretendida, primeiramente porque o desequilíbrio de poder é objeto de estudo de tal teoria. Em segundo lugar, com ênfase na sistematização apresentada por Glenn N. Snyder, tal teoria se mostrou apropriada para a questão em vista da configuração do sistema de comércio internacional como uma anarquia, dentro de uma estrutura de multipolaridade, em que não é possível perceber ex ante os possíveis alinhamentos, diante de uma determinada configuração, justificando o emprego de tal teoria. A tese então confirmou a necessidade de adoção de um mecanismo de retaliação coletiva no SSC/OMC, tendo indicado quando a retaliação coletiva deverá ser desnecessária, facultativa ou obrigatória. Para tanto, a tese desenvolveu conceitos como capacidade relativa, menor coalizão vencedora, aliança-dependência, além de perquirir sobre a situação pré-aliança dos interesses das unidades envolvidas, como propulsionadora ou limitadora da formação de alianças. Tais conceitos foram aplicados sobre as situações fáticas das onze arbitragens do Artigo 22.6 do Entendimento sobre Solução de Controvérsias (ESC). Por meio da aplicação da Teoria da Paisagem de Agregação, a tese confirmou a necessidade de implementação, em determinadas circunstâncias, de um mecanismo obrigatório de retaliação coletiva. Assim, propôs a tese que um mecanismo de retaliação coletiva poderá ter caráter meramente facultativo quando, em uma situação de desequilíbrio de poder: (i) houver outros Membros com interesses comuns, intensos e específicos a propulsionar a formação de uma aliança; e (ii) tais Membros reunirem capacidade relativa suficiente para formar uma menor coalizão vencedora, juntamente com o Membro demandante. De outra parte, o mecanismo de retaliação coletiva deverá ter caráter obrigatório quando, diante de uma situação de desequilíbrio de poder: (i) seja patente a baixa capacidade relativa do Membro demandante; (ii) não haja Membros com interesses comuns, intensos e específicos a propulsionar a formação de uma aliança com o Membro demandante; e (iii) seja improvável a formação de uma menor coalizão vencedora. Por fim, a tese apresentou uma proposta de emenda aos Artigos 22.3 e 22.6 do ESC, para incorporação de um mecanismo de retaliação coletiva no SSC/OMC, explicitando os requisitos legais para tanto. / The objective of the thesis was to examine the viability of implementing a mechanism of collective countermeasures (retaliation) within the dispute settlement system (DS) of the WTO, as from the perspective of the alliance formation theory, as developed under international relations. The aim was to verify whether and under which conditions coalitions seeking at imposing collective retaliation will form, in case such mechanism is implemented in the DS/WTO. The thesis developed under the premise that enforcement under the DS/WTO is still founded on self-help, i.e., dependent on the force, the power, of the demanding Members to induce the demanded Member to adopt the Dispute Settlement Bodys (DSB) recommendations, by means of bilateral retaliation, based on reciprocity. However, one can note that the insufficiency and/or ineffectiveness of such bilateral countermeasures to induce the demanded Member to comply with the DSBs recommendations are generally associated with imbalance of power situations. The alliance formation theory proved to be appropriate for undertaking the envisaged analysis. Firstly, the analysis of imbalance of power situations is under the purview of the alliance formation theory. Secondly, with emphasis on the work developed by Glenn N. Snyder, the theory showed to be appropriate for the matter at hand, because the international trade system is structured under anarchy, in a multipolar structure, where it is not possible to predict ex ante the possible alignments in a given configuration, justifying the usage of the theory. The thesis thus confirmed the need to adopt a mechanism of collective retaliation at the DS/WTO, having indicated that collective retaliation can be unnecessary; allowed or mandatory. For that, the theory developed the concepts of relative capacity, minimal winning coalition, alliancedependence, besides the examination of the pre-alliance situation of the interests of the units involved, to verify whether there are fostering or preventing factors to the alliance formation. Such concepts were applied to the factual settings of the eleven arbitrations of Article 22.6 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU). By means of the application of the Landscape Theory of Aggregation, the thesis confirmed the need to implement, under certain circumstances, a mandatory mechanism of collective retaliation. Thus, the thesis submitted that the collective retaliation mechanism will be allowed, when, under an imbalance of power situation: (i) there are other Members with common, intense and specific interests fostering the alliance formation; and (ii) such Members bring about enough relative capacity to form a minimal winning coalition with the demanding Member. On the other hand, the collective retaliation mechanism will be mandatory, in an imbalance of power situation, when: (i) it is evident that the demanding Member has low relative capacity; (ii) there are no Members with common, intense and specific interests to foster the formation of an alliance with the demanding Member; and (iii) it is improbable that a minimal winning coalition will be formed. Finally, the thesis proposed an amendment to the text of Articles 22.3 and 22.6 of the DSU, to incorporate the collective relation mechanism in the DS/WTO, indicating the legal requisites thereof.

Esta tese teve por objeto analisar a viabilidade de implementação de, no âmbito do sistema de solução de controvérsias (SSC) da OMC, um mecanismo de contramedidas (retaliação) coletiva, à luz da teoria de formação de alianças, tal qual desenvolvida na teoria de relações internacionais. O objetivo foi perquirir se e em que condições poderão se formar coalizões visando à aplicação de retaliação coletiva, caso tal mecanismo seja incorporado ao SSC/OMC. A tese se baseou na premissa de que o enforcement do SSC/OMC ainda se funda em soluções de self-help, ou seja, dependente da força, do poder, do Membro demandante de induzir o Membro demandado a cumprir as recomendações do Órgão de Solução de Controvérsias (OSC), mediante a aplicação de retaliação bilateral, centrada na reciprocidade. Observa-se todavia uma insuficiência e/ou ineficácia de tais contramedidas bilaterais para induzir o Membro demandado a cumprir com as recomendações do OSC em situações envolvendo desequilíbrio de poder (entre Membro demandante e Membro demandado). A teoria de formação de alianças se mostrou adequada para a análise pretendida, primeiramente porque o desequilíbrio de poder é objeto de estudo de tal teoria. Em segundo lugar, com ênfase na sistematização apresentada por Glenn N. Snyder, tal teoria se mostrou apropriada para a questão em vista da configuração do sistema de comércio internacional como uma anarquia, dentro de uma estrutura de multipolaridade, em que não é possível perceber ex ante os possíveis alinhamentos, diante de uma determinada configuração, justificando o emprego de tal teoria. A tese então confirmou a necessidade de adoção de um mecanismo de retaliação coletiva no SSC/OMC, tendo indicado quando a retaliação coletiva deverá ser desnecessária, facultativa ou obrigatória. Para tanto, a tese desenvolveu conceitos como capacidade relativa, menor coalizão vencedora, aliança-dependência, além de perquirir sobre a situação pré-aliança dos interesses das unidades envolvidas, como propulsionadora ou limitadora da formação de alianças. Tais conceitos foram aplicados sobre as situações fáticas das onze arbitragens do Artigo 22.6 do Entendimento sobre Solução de Controvérsias (ESC). Por meio da aplicação da Teoria da Paisagem de Agregação, a tese confirmou a necessidade de implementação, em determinadas circunstâncias, de um mecanismo obrigatório de retaliação coletiva. Assim, propôs a tese que um mecanismo de retaliação coletiva poderá ter caráter meramente facultativo quando, em uma situação de desequilíbrio de poder: (i) houver outros Membros com interesses comuns, intensos e específicos a propulsionar a formação de uma aliança; e (ii) tais Membros reunirem capacidade relativa suficiente para formar uma menor coalizão vencedora, juntamente com o Membro demandante. De outra parte, o mecanismo de retaliação coletiva deverá ter caráter obrigatório quando, diante de uma situação de desequilíbrio de poder: (i) seja patente a baixa capacidade relativa do Membro demandante; (ii) não haja Membros com interesses comuns, intensos e específicos a propulsionar a formação de uma aliança com o Membro demandante; e (iii) seja improvável a formação de uma menor coalizão vencedora. Por fim, a tese apresentou uma proposta de emenda aos Artigos 22.3 e 22.6 do ESC, para incorporação de um mecanismo de retaliação coletiva no SSC/OMC, explicitando os requisitos legais para tanto. / The objective of the thesis was to examine the viability of implementing a mechanism of collective countermeasures (retaliation) within the dispute settlement system (DS) of the WTO, as from the perspective of the alliance formation theory, as developed under international relations. The aim was to verify whether and under which conditions coalitions seeking at imposing collective retaliation will form, in case such mechanism is implemented in the DS/WTO. The thesis developed under the premise that enforcement under the DS/WTO is still founded on self-help, i.e., dependent on the force, the power, of the demanding Members to induce the demanded Member to adopt the Dispute Settlement Bodys (DSB) recommendations, by means of bilateral retaliation, based on reciprocity. However, one can note that the insufficiency and/or ineffectiveness of such bilateral countermeasures to induce the demanded Member to comply with the DSBs recommendations are generally associated with imbalance of power situations. The alliance formation theory proved to be appropriate for undertaking the envisaged analysis. Firstly, the analysis of imbalance of power situations is under the purview of the alliance formation theory. Secondly, with emphasis on the work developed by Glenn N. Snyder, the theory showed to be appropriate for the matter at hand, because the international trade system is structured under anarchy, in a multipolar structure, where it is not possible to predict ex ante the possible alignments in a given configuration, justifying the usage of the theory. The thesis thus confirmed the need to adopt a mechanism of collective retaliation at the DS/WTO, having indicated that collective retaliation can be unnecessary; allowed or mandatory. For that, the theory developed the concepts of relative capacity, minimal winning coalition, alliancedependence, besides the examination of the pre-alliance situation of the interests of the units involved, to verify whether there are fostering or preventing factors to the alliance formation. Such concepts were applied to the factual settings of the eleven arbitrations of Article 22.6 of the Dispute Settlement Understanding (DSU). By means of the application of the Landscape Theory of Aggregation, the thesis confirmed the need to implement, under certain circumstances, a mandatory mechanism of collective retaliation. Thus, the thesis submitted that the collective retaliation mechanism will be allowed, when, under an imbalance of power situation: (i) there are other Members with common, intense and specific interests fostering the alliance formation; and (ii) such Members bring about enough relative capacity to form a minimal winning coalition with the demanding Member. On the other hand, the collective retaliation mechanism will be mandatory, in an imbalance of power situation, when: (i) it is evident that the demanding Member has low relative capacity; (ii) there are no Members with common, intense and specific interests to foster the formation of an alliance with the demanding Member; and (iii) it is improbable that a minimal winning coalition will be formed. Finally, the thesis proposed an amendment to the text of Articles 22.3 and 22.6 of the DSU, to incorporate the collective relation mechanism in the DS/WTO, indicating the legal requisites thereof.

This dissertation consists of three studies. The first study provides a review and synthesis of past accounting research regarding factors that influence whistleblowing. The second study is a content analysis to examine the variation of organizations’ internal whistleblowing policy, including both the content characteristics of the policy and the linguistic characteristics of the policy. In terms of the content characteristics of the whistleblowing policy, this study focuses on who is covered in the policy, where to report, employees’ responsibility, corporate investigation procedures, disciplinary action against the wrongdoer, and anti-retaliation policy. In terms of the linguistic characteristics of the internal whistleblowing policy, this study focuses on the types of pronouns, the language uncertainty of the policy, and the tone of the policy (positive or negative). Furthermore, the overlaps between the content characteristics and the linguistic characteristics are also identified. The third study is a 2 by 2 between-subjects experiment to investigate the best design of companies’ internal whistleblowing policy. By breaking the internal whistleblowing policy into the reporting policy (responsibility to report and reporting channel) and the anti-retaliation policy (protection against retaliation), the experiment manipulates the type of pronouns for the reporting policy (first-person pronoun reporting policy or third-person pronoun reporting policy) and type of pronouns for the anti-retaliation policy (first-person pronoun anti-retaliation policy or third-person pronoun anti-retaliation policy). Results suggest that first-person reporting policy is better than third-person reporting policy at encouraging reporting unethical behaviors and this is mediated by the language vividness effect.

Organizational justice scholars have ignored the influence that the nature of a decision outcome has upon reactions to perceived injustice, yet research on loss aversion demonstrates that people react more strongly to situations that result in a loss than those that result in an anticipated gain failing to materialize (non-gain). Furthermore, research on regulatory focus has found that the nature of a decision outcome can itself elicit different emotions. Based on this, a cognitive appraisal model of the relationship between injustice and emotions is proposed that accounts for the effect of decision outcome. This model predicts that emotional reactions to injustice will differ according to the nature of the received decision outcome as well as the fairness of the procedure used to reach that outcome. Specifically, it is hypothesized that a loss decision outcome will elicit a prevention focus and lead to greater agitation-related emotions, whereas a non-gain decision outcome will elicit a promotion focus and result in greater dejection-related emotions. In addition, it is predicted that, in the presence of an unfair procedure, outward-focused, foci-related emotions will be reported and that perceptions of procedural injustice will be related to increased retaliation especially following a loss. To test these predictions, participants were asked to provide their reactions to vignettes describing aloss or non-gain reached via a fair or an unfair procedure. Although all hypotheses were not supported, it was found that decision outcome produced a significant main effect on emotions, such that participants reported higher levels of negative emotions after a loss and higher ratings of positive emotions after a non-gain. In addition, it was found that procedural injustice was related to higher levels of outward-focused, negative emotions and increased retaliation.

Os diferentes modelos culturais do consumidor (utilitário, oposicionista e relacional) tendem a influenciar seu comportamento de retaliação após experiências insatisfatórias. Para melhor entender essa relação de influência, foi desenvolvido um estudo exploratório de natureza qualitativa que contou com 18 informantes que apresentaram comportamento retaliatório. Os dados foram coletados com base na técnica storytelling e foram trabalhados a partir da análise de conteúdo. Os resultados indicaram que os consumidores, influenciados pelos seus modelos culturais, apresentaram diferentes ações de retaliação (diretas e indiretas), diferentes objetivos (econômicos e relacionais), diferentes emoções (raiva, ansiedade, tristeza e desamparo, entre outras) e diferentes papéis diante da empresa responsável pelo duplo desvio (vingador, altruísta e vítima). Especificamente, consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural oposicionista apresentaram comportamentos diretos e indiretos contra o provedor, motivados por objetivos essencialmente econômicos. Esses consumidores demonstraram emoções como raiva e indignação e, por isso, a tendência foi adotar o papel de vingador. Para esses consumidores, o papel de vingador representou uma alternativa para demonstrar que possuíam o controle da situação. Consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural utilitário preferiram comportamentos indiretos de retaliação, demonstrando emoções como raiva e desamparo. Esses indivíduos, orientados por objetivos econômicos, adotaram o papel de vingador para obter uma compensação causada pelo duplo desvio. Consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural relacional adotaram primordialmente o papel de vítima e seus objetivos foram predominantemente relacionais. Para esses consumidores, o engajamento em ações de retaliação ocorreu para obter do provedor o reconhecimento de que são importantes para a manutenção do negócio. Tais consumidores optaram por ações diretas e indiretas e relataram emoções de raiva, tristeza e ansiedade. / The different types of consumer cultural models (i.e., utilitarian, oppositional and relational) tend to have an influence on consumer’s retaliation behavior after dissatisfying experiences. To better understand this influence, an exploratory and qualitative study was developed, which relied on 18 informants who have engaged in retaliatory behavior. The data was collected based on storytelling technique and analyzed from a content analysis perspective. Findings indicate that consumers, influenced by their cultural models, engage in different retaliation actions (direct and indirect), present different objectives (economic and relational), different emotions (anger, anxiety, sadness, helplessness, among others), as well as different roles towards the provider (avenger, altruist and victim). Specifically, consumers with the oppositional cultural model engage in direct and indirect behaviors against the provider, motivated essentially by economic objectives. These consumers demonstrate emotions such as anger and indignation, and, because of that, they report a tendency to adopt the role of avenger, which represents an alternative to show they have the control over the situation. Consumers with the utilitarian cultural model prefer indirect retaliation behaviors and report emotions like anger and helplessness. They are oriented by economic objectives and adopt the avenger role primarily to obtain a compensation caused by the double deviation. Consumers influenced by the relational cultural model adopt mainly the victim role and their objective is basically relational. The engagement in retaliation behavior is motivated by the recognition from the provider that they are important for the maintenance of the business. Clients who act influenced by this cultural model tend to adopt direct and indirect retaliation and they report emotions such as anger, sadness and anxiety.

Os diferentes modelos culturais do consumidor (utilitário, oposicionista e relacional) tendem a influenciar seu comportamento de retaliação após experiências insatisfatórias. Para melhor entender essa relação de influência, foi desenvolvido um estudo exploratório de natureza qualitativa que contou com 18 informantes que apresentaram comportamento retaliatório. Os dados foram coletados com base na técnica storytelling e foram trabalhados a partir da análise de conteúdo. Os resultados indicaram que os consumidores, influenciados pelos seus modelos culturais, apresentaram diferentes ações de retaliação (diretas e indiretas), diferentes objetivos (econômicos e relacionais), diferentes emoções (raiva, ansiedade, tristeza e desamparo, entre outras) e diferentes papéis diante da empresa responsável pelo duplo desvio (vingador, altruísta e vítima). Especificamente, consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural oposicionista apresentaram comportamentos diretos e indiretos contra o provedor, motivados por objetivos essencialmente econômicos. Esses consumidores demonstraram emoções como raiva e indignação e, por isso, a tendência foi adotar o papel de vingador. Para esses consumidores, o papel de vingador representou uma alternativa para demonstrar que possuíam o controle da situação. Consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural utilitário preferiram comportamentos indiretos de retaliação, demonstrando emoções como raiva e desamparo. Esses indivíduos, orientados por objetivos econômicos, adotaram o papel de vingador para obter uma compensação causada pelo duplo desvio. Consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural relacional adotaram primordialmente o papel de vítima e seus objetivos foram predominantemente relacionais. Para esses consumidores, o engajamento em ações de retaliação ocorreu para obter do provedor o reconhecimento de que são importantes para a manutenção do negócio. Tais consumidores optaram por ações diretas e indiretas e relataram emoções de raiva, tristeza e ansiedade. / The different types of consumer cultural models (i.e., utilitarian, oppositional and relational) tend to have an influence on consumer’s retaliation behavior after dissatisfying experiences. To better understand this influence, an exploratory and qualitative study was developed, which relied on 18 informants who have engaged in retaliatory behavior. The data was collected based on storytelling technique and analyzed from a content analysis perspective. Findings indicate that consumers, influenced by their cultural models, engage in different retaliation actions (direct and indirect), present different objectives (economic and relational), different emotions (anger, anxiety, sadness, helplessness, among others), as well as different roles towards the provider (avenger, altruist and victim). Specifically, consumers with the oppositional cultural model engage in direct and indirect behaviors against the provider, motivated essentially by economic objectives. These consumers demonstrate emotions such as anger and indignation, and, because of that, they report a tendency to adopt the role of avenger, which represents an alternative to show they have the control over the situation. Consumers with the utilitarian cultural model prefer indirect retaliation behaviors and report emotions like anger and helplessness. They are oriented by economic objectives and adopt the avenger role primarily to obtain a compensation caused by the double deviation. Consumers influenced by the relational cultural model adopt mainly the victim role and their objective is basically relational. The engagement in retaliation behavior is motivated by the recognition from the provider that they are important for the maintenance of the business. Clients who act influenced by this cultural model tend to adopt direct and indirect retaliation and they report emotions such as anger, sadness and anxiety.

Os diferentes modelos culturais do consumidor (utilitário, oposicionista e relacional) tendem a influenciar seu comportamento de retaliação após experiências insatisfatórias. Para melhor entender essa relação de influência, foi desenvolvido um estudo exploratório de natureza qualitativa que contou com 18 informantes que apresentaram comportamento retaliatório. Os dados foram coletados com base na técnica storytelling e foram trabalhados a partir da análise de conteúdo. Os resultados indicaram que os consumidores, influenciados pelos seus modelos culturais, apresentaram diferentes ações de retaliação (diretas e indiretas), diferentes objetivos (econômicos e relacionais), diferentes emoções (raiva, ansiedade, tristeza e desamparo, entre outras) e diferentes papéis diante da empresa responsável pelo duplo desvio (vingador, altruísta e vítima). Especificamente, consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural oposicionista apresentaram comportamentos diretos e indiretos contra o provedor, motivados por objetivos essencialmente econômicos. Esses consumidores demonstraram emoções como raiva e indignação e, por isso, a tendência foi adotar o papel de vingador. Para esses consumidores, o papel de vingador representou uma alternativa para demonstrar que possuíam o controle da situação. Consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural utilitário preferiram comportamentos indiretos de retaliação, demonstrando emoções como raiva e desamparo. Esses indivíduos, orientados por objetivos econômicos, adotaram o papel de vingador para obter uma compensação causada pelo duplo desvio. Consumidores influenciados pelo modelo cultural relacional adotaram primordialmente o papel de vítima e seus objetivos foram predominantemente relacionais. Para esses consumidores, o engajamento em ações de retaliação ocorreu para obter do provedor o reconhecimento de que são importantes para a manutenção do negócio. Tais consumidores optaram por ações diretas e indiretas e relataram emoções de raiva, tristeza e ansiedade. / The different types of consumer cultural models (i.e., utilitarian, oppositional and relational) tend to have an influence on consumer’s retaliation behavior after dissatisfying experiences. To better understand this influence, an exploratory and qualitative study was developed, which relied on 18 informants who have engaged in retaliatory behavior. The data was collected based on storytelling technique and analyzed from a content analysis perspective. Findings indicate that consumers, influenced by their cultural models, engage in different retaliation actions (direct and indirect), present different objectives (economic and relational), different emotions (anger, anxiety, sadness, helplessness, among others), as well as different roles towards the provider (avenger, altruist and victim). Specifically, consumers with the oppositional cultural model engage in direct and indirect behaviors against the provider, motivated essentially by economic objectives. These consumers demonstrate emotions such as anger and indignation, and, because of that, they report a tendency to adopt the role of avenger, which represents an alternative to show they have the control over the situation. Consumers with the utilitarian cultural model prefer indirect retaliation behaviors and report emotions like anger and helplessness. They are oriented by economic objectives and adopt the avenger role primarily to obtain a compensation caused by the double deviation. Consumers influenced by the relational cultural model adopt mainly the victim role and their objective is basically relational. The engagement in retaliation behavior is motivated by the recognition from the provider that they are important for the maintenance of the business. Clients who act influenced by this cultural model tend to adopt direct and indirect retaliation and they report emotions such as anger, sadness and anxiety.

Les négociations de l’Uruguay Round ont été l’occasion d’introduire la propriété intellectuelle dans le cadre du GATT avec la conclusion de l’Accord sur les aspects des droits de propriété intellectuelle qui touchent au commerce (ADPIC) et l’application du système renforcé de règlement des différends de l’OMC aux différends découlant de ce nouvel accord. La présente thèse vise à analyser comment ce système administré par l’ORD organise, traite et règle les différends relatifs au respect des obligations découlant de l’Accord sur les ADPIC. La question est d’une grande importance en raison des singularités de l’Accord sur les ADPIC. Les études menées tout au long de cette thèse ont permis de faire état des règles et procédures encadrant le règlement des différends ADPIC ; de révéler certaines spécificités, en ce qui concerne le type de plaintes pouvant être portées devant l’ORD, et certaines difficultés spécifiques soulevées par l’application de son système de rétorsion à l’Accord sur les ADPIC ; de mettre en avant le rôle central que joue l’ORD, lequel s’est révélé crédible et efficace, non seulement en traitant les différends ADPIC par le truchement des Groupes spéciaux et l’Organe d’appel, mais encore en contribuant à en régler un nombre appréciable au stade des consultations ; et enfin de souligner la manière prudente dont ont fait preuve les Groupes spéciaux et l’Organe d’appel dans leur mission. / The Uruguay Round negotiations gave an opportunity to include intellectual property within the GATT framework, with the conclusion of the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) and the application of the reinforced system of the WTO dispute settlement to disputes deriving from this new agreement. The present thesis aims at analyzing how this system, managed by the Dispute Settlement Body (DSB) organizes, drafts and rules disputes related to the respect of the obligations born of the TRIPS Agreement. The question is of great importance because of the TRIPS Agreement singularities. The studies undertaken throughout this thesis help report on the rules and procedures framing the TRIPS disputes settlement ; reveal some specificities, with regard to the type of complaints which can be brought before the DSB, and some specific difficulties generated by the application of the DSB retaliation system to the TRIPS Agreement ; highlight the central role that plays the DSB, which appeared trustworthy and effective, not only in dealing with TRIPS disputes through the establishment of panels and the Appellate Body, but also in contributing to the settlement of a significant number of disputes at the consultation stage ; and finally underline how the panels and the Appellate Body precautiously lead their own mission.

The purpose of this dissertation is to explore employees' behavioral reactions to the perceived aggression of others. Perceived aggression is defined as behavior that is perceived to be intentionally harmful by the intended target. A typology is developed that identifies two primary dimensions of behavioral reaction: (1) the form of the behavior (aggression/non-aggression) and (2) the direction of the behavior (toward the source of the harm/not toward the source of the harm). Based on these dimensions, the typology produces four categories of behavioral reactions: retaliatory aggression, displaced aggression, constructive problem-solving, and withdrawal. A model is then presented, which identifies various factors that influence employees' reactions. The relationships are examined in two studies. The first study is a cross-sectional survey design, which investigates the reactions to perceived supervisor aggression and the moderating effects of various situational factors (fear of retaliation, aggressive modeling and absolute hierarchical status) and individual factors (trait anger and the need for social approval). The second study is a 2x2 experimental design that investigates the reactions to perceived aggression and the moderating effects of fear of retaliation and personality variables (trait anger, locus of control and the need for social approval). Participants of the experiment, 77 undergraduate students, were randomly assigned into conditions of perceived aggression (high/low) and fear of retaliation (high/low). Perceived aggression was manipulated through exam feedback and fear of retaliation was manipulated through anonymity of instructor evaluations. The results of both studies provide support for some of the predictions, as well as some contradictory findings. Conclusions are drawn from the theory, typology and findings of the studies, highlighting implications for future aggression and organizational behavior research.