The theme of this thesis is the reaction to fire performanceof wood and other building products, andparticularly thematerial fire properties time to ignition, rate of heat releaseand smoke production. These properties have been measured by asmall-scale fire test method, the Cone Calorimeter, andpresented for different types of building products. Uncertainty analysis, included instrument and assumptionuncertainty, has been performed for the case that both O2 andCO2 are measured for calculation of the rate of heat release inthe Cone Calorimeter. The partial derivatives for theuncertainty analysis are given. The relative uncertainty forthe rate of heat release measurements in the Cone Calorimeteris between ±5% to ±10% for rate of heat releasevalues larger than about 50 kW/m2. The time to ignition in the Cone Calorimeter is compatiblewith the time to ignition in the ISO Ignitability test, whichis the main test method for measuring time to ignition. Thetime to ignition is an increasing linear function of density.The rate of heat release in the Cone Calorimeter is dependentof material thickness and of use of retainer frame. Thematerial thickness gives the heat release curve duration andshape. Thin materials have short burning time and two maximumvalues. Thick materials have long burning time and when thematerial is thicker than about 35 mm no second maximum appears.When the retainer frame is used the actual exposed surface isreduced from 0.01 m2 to 0.0088 m2, the rate of heat release isreduced and the burning time is increased. A comparison ofresults with and without use of the retainer frame gives thenequal results when the exposed area is set to 0.0088 m2 in thecase of using the retainer frame. The time to flashover in the full-scale room corner test waspredicted on the basis of Cone Calorimeter data at 50 kW/m2 bya power law of ignition time, the total heat release calculatedover 300 s after ignition and the density of the product. Therelation gives a simple relation to evaluate if a productreaches flashover in the room corner test. The smoke production has also been measured in the ConeCalorimeter. The white light and the laser smoke measurementsystems have shown similar results. There is a correlationbetween Cone Calorimeter and room corner test smoke productionwhen the products are divided into groups: those that reachflashover in the room corner test in less than 10 min and thosethat have more than 10 min to flashover. Temperature profilesin wood have been measured in the Cone Calorimeter by a simpletechnique. The effect of fire protective gypsum plasterboardson the charring of wood frame members has been determined andcompared with fullscale furnace wall tests. The protectiveeffects of twenty different boards have been presented. ConeCalorimeter and furnace tests show similar charring of wooduntil the boards fall down in furnace tests. After that, thecharring of wood is higher in the furnace, because the wood isexposed directly to the fire. Keywords:building products, charring of wood, ConeCalorimeter, fire retardant treated wood, fire tests,ignitability, mass loss, rate of heat release, reaction tofire, smoke production, wood products / <p>NR 20140805</p>

No description available.

[pt] O Acrilonitrila-Butadieno-Estireno (ABS) é um polímero de grande uso industrial, sendo empregado em inúmeros produtos. Muitas de suas aplicações necessitam de uma elevada resistência a combustão seja pela presença de cargas elétricas (Efeito Joule) ou a exposição a ambientes de altas temperaturas. No entanto, o ABS, de modo semelhante a maioria dos polímeros, não é tão resistente a combustão, sendo necessário o emprego de aditivos Retardantes de Chamas (RC). A introdução desses aditivos pode, entretanto, acarretar alteração nas propriedades mecânicas, de forma que é necessário se comparar o comportamento do material com e sem aditivos. Particularmente importante é o comportamento a longo prazo, como a fluência. Assim, nesse trabalho foi avaliado o comportamento a fluência do ABS sem aditivo e de três sistemas ABS/RC. Foi usado um sistema empregando um aditivo comercial à base de bromo (ABS − Br), que serviu como base de comparação e dois sistemas recentemente desenvolvidos, empregando bio-retardantes, a saber: ácido tânico (TA) e polifosfato de amônio (APP). Os resultados dos ensaios mostraram que o aditivo comercial não acarretou variação da vida em fluência em relação ao ABS sem aditivo. Por outro lado, os resultados indicaram que a vida em fluência foi reduzida quando o aditivo APP foi incorporado e que aumentou quando o TA foi adicionado. Os dados experimentais dos ensaios de fluência foram usados para avaliar o comportamento viscoelástico dos quatro grupos de materiais. O ABS teve seu comportamento adequadamente representado pelo modelo de Burgers, assim como a ABS com aditivo à base de bromo. O modelo que melhor descreveu o comportamento do ABS com APP foi o modelo modificado de Burgers (Streched Burgers). Nem todas as amostras do ABS com TA apresentaram fluência no intervalo de tempo usado e o modelo que melhor descreveu o comportamento foi o do sólido linear padrão. / [en] Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) is a polymer of great industrial use, being used in numerous products. Many of its applications require a high resistance to combustion, either due to the presence of electrical charges (Joule Effect) or exposure to high temperature environments. However, ABS, like most polymers, is not as resistant to combustion, requiring the use of Flame Retardant (RC) additives. The introduction of these additives can, however, lead to changes in the mechanical properties, so it is necessary to compare the behavior of the material with and without additives. Particularly important is long-term behavior such as fluency. Thus, in this work, the creep behavior of ABS without additive and of three ABS/RC systems was evaluated. A system employing a commercial bromine-based additive (ABS − Br) was used, which served as a basis for comparison and two recently developed systems employing bio-retardants, namely: tannic acid (TA) and ammonium polyphosphate (APP) . The test results showed that the commercial additive did not cause a change in creep life compared to ABS without additive. On the other hand, the results indicated that the creep life was reduced when the APP additive was incorporated and that it increased when the TA was added. Experimental data from creep tests were used to evaluate the viscoelastic behavior of the four groups of materials. ABS had its behavior adequately represented by the Burgers model, as well as ABS with bromine-based additive. The model that best described the behavior of ABS with APP was the modified Burgers model (Streched Burgers). Not all ABS samples with TA showed fluence in the time interval used and the model that best described the behavior was the standard linear solid.

Environmental issues and the housing shortage is an ongoing debate among politicians. Wood is a building material that Sweden has plenty of and it is a material that, according to research, does not contribute to as much carbon dioxide emissions during production, compared to other construction materials such as concrete and steel. Therefore the demand for timber, in both facade claddings and external wall constructions, is increasing. In light of this, the purpose with this degree project is to study different fire protection methods for wood and compare it to untreated wood. Collecting the facts and information for this degree project at Mälardalens University, is done through literature studies, surveys, and two experiments conducted on two selected fire retardants. The experiments were conducted to test untreated, fire protection impregnated and wood with fire proof paint. One of the experiments tested the load-carrying capacity of the beams after being charred with a gas burner. The other experiment investigated the surface layer and measured the fire spread rate and both experiments tested the fire resistance. The experiments that were conducted concluded that out of the three different methods for facades and beams, fire protection impregnation was the best choice in all five chosen categories: load-carrying capacity, fire resistance, surfaces, environmental impact and health safety for workers. / Miljöfrågan och bostadsbristen är två pågående debatter bland politikerna. Ett byggmaterial som både är miljövänligt och lätt att bygga med är trä. Det är ett byggmaterial som Sverige har gott om och enligt forskning bidrar det inte med lika mycket koldioxidutsläpp vid produktionen jämfört med andra konstruktionsmaterial som betong och stål. Enligt äldre bygglagstiftningar var det enbart tillåtet att bygga hus med två våningar i trä. Det var godkänt att bygga hus med tre våningar om den nedersta våningen bestod utav sten och de två översta i trä. Den nya bygglagstiftningen har inga begränsningar på att använda trä i ytterväggar, oberoende av byggnadsklass så länge de uppfyller funktionskraven. Byggsektorn har varit medveten om att de fick bygga flervåningshus i trä men inte hur det skulle utföras och samtidigt uppfylla bygglagstiftningens krav. Resultatet av ändringarna i bygglagstiftningen, Boverkets byggregler, ökade efterfrågan och utbudet på brandskyddsmedel till trä. De vanligaste produkterna som finns ute för konsumenten är brandskyddsfärg och brandskyddsimpregnering. Trä kan genom brandskyddsimpregnering eller brandskyddsfärg få en brandteknisk klass enligt det europeiska systemet, EN 13501-1, upp mot B-s1,d0 som är högre än för obehandlat trä, Ds1, d0. Tekniskt sett går det att bygga Br1-byggnader med obehandlat trä, dock så krävs det ett antal åtgärder för att uppfylla Boverkets byggreglers funktionskrav, till exempel att installera automatiska släcksystem eller enbart ha trä på en begränsad del av fasaden. Med brandskyddsbehandling går det idag endast att uppnå brandteknisk ytskiktsklass B-s1,d0, vilket inte är tillräckligt enligt Boverkets byggregler som kräver lägst obrännbara fasadbeklädnader i ytskiktsklass A2-s1,d0 för att uppfylla allmänna råden. Fasadbeklädnader av trä, oavsett brandteknisk klass, kan testas med provmetoden SP FIRE 105 och därmed uppfylla föreskriftens krav på ytterväggskonstruktioner med avseende på brandspridning längs fasadytan. Syftet med arbetet är att jämföra olika brandskyddsmetoder av trä och undersöka vilken eller vilka som är bäst lämpad att använda i flervåningshus ur bland annat miljö-, arbetsmiljö- och brandsynpunkt. Detta uppnås genom en litteraturstudie som fokuserar på ämnet brandskyddsmetoder av trä och genom två försök genomfördes för att testa obehandlat, brandskyddsimpregnerat och brandskyddsmålat trä. Ett försök testade bärförmågan efter brandpåverkan, andra undersökte ytskikt, och båda försöken testade brandmotstånd. Bärförmågan testades genom att brandpåverkade reglar blev utsatta för en central punktlast i en Instron- maskin. Ytskikten prövades genom ett enklare försök baserad på testmetoden SP FIRE 105 på tre fasader. En obehandlad, en brandskyddsimpregnerad och en brandskyddsmålad. Mätningar och dokumentation gjordes med bland annat mätinstrument som plattermoelement och filmkamera. Båda typerna av brandskyddsmetoder kräver en kemisk framställning som varken är bra för naturen eller människan. Produktionen är automatiserad och därmed inte någon risk för någon människa. Den färdiga produkten är varken skadlig för miljön, människor eller djur, sålänge inte produkterna förtärs i större omfattning. Resultatet från undersökningen av de tre olika fasaderna visade att det brandskyddsimpregnerade virket klarade sig bäst i alla fem kategorier: bärförmåga, brandmotstånd, ytskikt, miljöpåverkan och arbetsmiljö. Slutsatsen är av det två typer av brandsskyddsmedel för trä som testades, är brandskyddsimpregnering den mest lönsammaste alla fem kategorier. Produkten är lätthanterad, avger inga farliga gaser och är i snitt inte dyrare än det obehandlade materialet. Dock är det viktigt att tänka på brandskyddsarbete och inte släppa på säkerheten för att konstruktionen byggs med brandskyddsimpregnerat trä.

Les travaux proposés portent sur la caractérisation par rayons X des matériaux, en vue du tri de certains d'entre eux dans un flux de déchets. L'objectif final du tri est la valorisation de certains matériaux par le biais des circuits de recyclage. Deux méthodes d'analyse utilisant les rayons X sont décrites : la méthode par transmission bi-énergie et la fluorescence X. Ces deux méthodes sont abordées sous un angle théorique et expérimental. Le mémoire se compose de trois parties. La première partie présente le contexte général de l'étude, les différents scénarios de tri envisagés, les différentes méthodes existantes ainsi que les machines de tri industrielles déjà commercialisées. La seconde partie est consacrée à l'analyse par transmission X bi-énergie. Dans cette partie nous présentons tout d'abord le principe de la décomposition d'un matériau dans une base de deux autres matériaux. Ensuite nous utilisons un code de simulation analytique développé au laboratoire afin d'une part d'optimiser la géométrie du détecteur mais également de prévoir les performances de cette méthode en fonction des scénarios et des matériaux recherchés. Nous avons introduit un critère permettant de quantifier la performance d'un scénario donné. Cette méthode a permis de montrer que plusieurs scénarios de tri et en particulier celui du tri des retardateurs de flamme dans un flux de plastiques sont envisageables par cette méthode. Un prototype de machine industrielle a été construit par la société Bertin Technologies et installé dans les locaux de la société Pellenc ST pour réaliser des tests en conditions réelles de tri. Les résultats de simulation ont été comparés aux essais en conditions réelles. Cette partie se conclue avec une introduction aux méthodes multi-énergie. La troisième et dernière partie s'intéresse à la fluorescence X. L'objectif est de mettre au point une méthode permettant d'identifier la nature du matériau en tenant compte des contraintes industrielles (temps d'acquisition faible), c'est-à-dire lorsque le niveau de signal contenu dans le spectre de fluorescence est faible et bruité. Un banc expérimental a été mis au point au laboratoire et a permis de définir la limite de détection qui dépend du matériau analysé et du temps d'acquisition pour réaliser la mesure. Le second point développé dans cette partie est la mise au point d'une technique de simulation de fluorescence combinant le calcul analytique et le calcul par méthode Monte Carlo. L'avantage de cette technique est d'avoir une méthode de simulation plus rapide par rapport à un calcul qui serait réalisé entièrement par Monte Carlo. En conclusion, nous discutons de la complémentarité des informations issues de ces différentes techniques ainsi que leurs avantages et inconvénients. / The proposed work focuses on the characterization of materials by X-ray to sort some of them in a waste stream. The main aim is the valorization of certain of these materials through recycling loops. Two methods of analysis using X-rays are described : dual energy X-ray transmission and X-ray fluorescence. These two methods are discussed from a theoretical and experimental point of view. The memory consists of four parts. The first part presents the general context of the study, the different sorting scenarios considered, the existing methods and industrial sorting systems already in application. The second part is devoted to analysis by dual energy X-ray transmission. In this section we first present the principle of decomposition of a material in a basis of two other materials. Then we use the VXI simulation tool to optimize the geometry of the detector and to predict the performances of the method according to the scenarios and refined materials. This method showed that several sorting scenarios and particularly sorting of flame retardants in plastic flow are possible by this method. An industrial prototype was built by Bertin Technologies and installed in the premises of Pellenc ST to realize sorting tests under actual conditions. Then the results of simulation have been compared to these tests. This section concludes with an introduction of multi-energy methods. The third part deals with X-ray fluorescence. The aim is to develop a method to identify the nature of the material even if the signal contained in its fluorescence spectrum is low and noisy. A experimental bench was developed in the laboratory to define the limit of detection wich depends on the material analyzed and the acquisition time of the measurement. The second point developed in this part is the development of a simulation technique that combines fluorescence analytical calculation and Monte Carlo calculation. The advantage of this technique is to have a faster simulation method compared to a calculation that would be fully realized by Monte Carlo. In conclusion, we discuss the complementarity of information extracted from these different techniques and their respective advantages and drawbacks.

Fire statistics suggest that there is an urgent need for improved performance of light-weight truss construction in fire scenarios. This thesis proposes the use of Fire Retardant Treated Wood (FRTW). Several floor truss systems were designed for a residential living room using sawn lumber and FRTW. A finite difference, heat transfer model was used to determine time to collapse and to identify modes of failure during a simulated exposure to the standard ASTM E-119 test fire curve. As part of ongoing research at WPI, this is an initial effort to use analytical methods in the study of heat transfer and structural performance of wood construction during fire conditions. Results were examined for important relationships to further advance the understanding of collapse mechanisms in wood trusses. Experimental procedures for further testing have also been developed. Acknowledgment that in-service conditions may alter structural fire performance is made and the implications are discussed. An alternate fire scenario, more representative of residential fire loading, was also developed and compared to the ASTM E-119 fire curve.

<p>Developmental toxicology is an important part of preclinical drug toxicology as well as environmental toxicology. Assessing reproductive and developmental toxicity is especially expensive and time demanding, since at least two generations of animals are needed in the tests. In light of this there is a great need for alternative test methods in many areas of developmental toxicity testing.</p><p>The complete set of RNA transcripts in any given organism is called the transcriptome. Proteomics refers to the study of the proteins in a given organism or cell population. The work of this thesis has focused on the use of high throughput screening methods in transcriptomics and proteomics to search for molecular markers of developmental toxicity.</p><p>We have studied the global gene expression effects of the developmentally toxic substance valproic acid (VPA) using microarray technology. Several genes were found that display the same gene expression pattern <i>in vivo</i> using mouse embryos as the pattern seen <i>in vitro</i> using the embryocarcinoma cell line P19. Based on these observations, the gene Gja1 was suggested as one potential molecular marker of VPA induced developmental toxicity and potential marker of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition <i>in vitro</i>. </p><p>Using 2D-DIGE technology, which measures relative protein abundances, the effect of neonatal exposure to the flame retardant PBDE-99 was studied in mouse brain (cortex, hippocampus and striatum) 24 hr after exposure. Differentially expressed proteins in the cortex and the striatum indicate that PBDE-99 may alter neurite outgrowth.</p><p>Finally, we have suggested several improvements in the use of the 2D-DIGE technology. Novel methods for normalizing data were presented, with several advantages compared to existing methods. We have presented a method named DEPPS that makes use of all identified proteins in a dataset to make comprehensive remarks about biological processes affected.</p>

Developmental toxicology is an important part of preclinical drug toxicology as well as environmental toxicology. Assessing reproductive and developmental toxicity is especially expensive and time demanding, since at least two generations of animals are needed in the tests. In light of this there is a great need for alternative test methods in many areas of developmental toxicity testing. The complete set of RNA transcripts in any given organism is called the transcriptome. Proteomics refers to the study of the proteins in a given organism or cell population. The work of this thesis has focused on the use of high throughput screening methods in transcriptomics and proteomics to search for molecular markers of developmental toxicity. We have studied the global gene expression effects of the developmentally toxic substance valproic acid (VPA) using microarray technology. Several genes were found that display the same gene expression pattern in vivo using mouse embryos as the pattern seen in vitro using the embryocarcinoma cell line P19. Based on these observations, the gene Gja1 was suggested as one potential molecular marker of VPA induced developmental toxicity and potential marker of histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition in vitro. Using 2D-DIGE technology, which measures relative protein abundances, the effect of neonatal exposure to the flame retardant PBDE-99 was studied in mouse brain (cortex, hippocampus and striatum) 24 hr after exposure. Differentially expressed proteins in the cortex and the striatum indicate that PBDE-99 may alter neurite outgrowth. Finally, we have suggested several improvements in the use of the 2D-DIGE technology. Novel methods for normalizing data were presented, with several advantages compared to existing methods. We have presented a method named DEPPS that makes use of all identified proteins in a dataset to make comprehensive remarks about biological processes affected.

The environmental occurrence and behaviour of the brominated flame retardant (BFR) decabromodiphenyl ethane (dbdpe) has only been studied to a limited extent. It is structurally similar to decabromodiphenyl ether (decaBDE), which makes it conceivable that dbdpe may also become an environmental contaminant of concern. A method for environmental analysis and comparative assessments of dbdpe and decaBDE was developed. Both BFRs were studied in: a mass balance of the Henriksdal WWTP in Stockholm (Paper I); an international survey of sewage sludge (Paper II); sediment along a transect from Henriksdal WWTP to the outer archipelago of Stockholm and from isolated Swedish lakes (Paper III); and a benthic food web from the Scheldt estuary (Paper IV). Dbdpe was found in sludge from every country surveyed, indicating that it may be a worldwide concern. The WWTP mass balance showed that virtually all of the BFRs were transferred from wastewater to sludge. A small fraction was emitted via the effluent, confirming emissions to the aquatic environment. In the marine sediment, the BFR levels close to the WWTP outfall were high. They decreased along the transect to low levels in the outer archipelago. The study of lake sediment showed a widespread presence of dbdpe in the Swedish environment and provided evidence that it originates from long range atmospheric transport. In the food web, dbdpe did bioaccumulate to a small extent which was similar to decaBDE. The transfer of the BFRs from sediment to benthic invertebrates was low, while transfer from prey to predator was higher. Biodilution was observed rather than biomagnification. This work suggests that the persistence, the susceptibility to long range atmospheric transport, and the potential for bioaccumulation are similar for dbdpe and the regulated decaBDE that it is replacing. Thus, there is a risk that a problematic environmental pollutant is being replaced with a chemical that is equally problematic. / At the time of the doctoral defense, the following papers were unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Submitted. Paper 4: Manuscript.

This thesis aims at developing a method of chemical aftertreatment for reduction of free formaldehyde release of a tetrakis (hydroxymethyl) phosphonium chloride (THPC) urea precondensate, ammonia cured durable flame retardant finished cotton fabric, by preventing the formation of free formaldehyde. Formaldehyde is toxic and carcinogenic. According to the worldwide standards, acceptable limit of free formaldehyde release, for the fabrics that have skin contact, is only 75 ppm (measured by water extraction method). In this research, a cotton fabric flame retardant finished in an industrial plant in Pakistan is used. Fabric is finished by the application of THPC urea precondensate and ammonia cured, oxidized and washed. After finishing, it is not aftertreated with sodium metabisulfite that is a commonly used aftertreatment method for the reduction of free formaldehyde release. Aftertreatment with sodium metabisulfite has various problems that include large number of hot washings and there is an increase in the formaldehyde release during fabric storage. If the fabric has 75 ppm of free formaldehyde, there is often an increase in free formaldehyde release during fabric storage. There is a very limited research on the aftertreatment methods and few reports of application of these aftertreatments on flame retardant fabrics have been published. In this research, two methods of aftertreatments are developed to reduce the free formaldehyde contents to 75 ppm or less. One is the aftertreatment with a combination of resorcinol 1% and diethylene glycol 4%. The other is the combination of resorcinol 1% and boric acid 6%. For both these aftertreatments, ammonium acetate 0.5% is used as a catalyst. Fabric is padded with the solution and then dried at 130̊ C for 8 minutes. After drying, fabric is rinsed with water at 40̊ C. The aftertreatment methods developed in this research have shown a long term effect in keeping the formaldehyde release below 75 ppm during fabric storage that is not available with other conventional aftertreatment methods. These aftertreatment methods have no adverse effect on the flame retardancy of the THPC ammonia cured finished fabric and the fabric is soft as compared to the original flame retardant finished fabric and to the fabric after treated with existing methods. These new developed methods have industrial application because there is no use of any solvent and there is no use of any special equipment for the aftertreatment.