Esta dissertação de mestrado apresenta um estudo sobre os efeitos de diferentes funções de recompensa, aplicadas em aprendizado por reforço multiagente, para o problema de roteamento de veículos, em redes de tráfego. São abordadas duas funções de recompensas que diferem no alinhamento do sinal numérico enviado do ambiente ao agente. A primeira função, chamada função individual, é alinhada à utilidade individual do agente (veículo ou motorista) e busca minimizar seu tempo de viagem. Já a segunda função, por sua vez, é a chamada difference rewards, essa é alinhada à utilidade global do sistema e tem por objetivo minimizar o tempo médio de viagem na rede (tempo médio de viagem de todos os motoristas). Ambas as abordagens são aplicadas em dois cenários de roteamento de veículos que diferem em: quantidade de motoristas aprendendo, topologia e, consequentemente, nível de complexidade. As abordagens são comparadas com três técnicas de alocação de tráfego presentes na literatura. Resultados apontam que os métodos baseados em aprendizado por reforço apresentam desempenho superior aos métodos de alocação de rotas. Além disso, o alinhamento da função de recompensa à utilidade global proporciona uma melhora significativa nos resultados quando comparados com a função individual. Porém, para o cenário com maior quantidade de agentes aprendendo simultaneamente, ambas as abordagens apresentam soluções equivalentes. / This dissertation presents a study on the effects of different reward functions applyed to multiagent reinforcement learning, for the vehicles routing problem, in traffic networks. Two reward functions that differ in the alignment of the numerical signal sent from the environment to the agent are addressed. The first function, called individual function is aligned with the agent’s (vehicle or driver) utility and seeks to minimize their travel time. The second function, is called difference rewards and is aligned to the system’s utility and aims to minimize the average travel time on the network (average travel time of all drivers). Both approaches are applied to two routing vehicles’ problems, which differ in the number of learning drivers, network topology and therefore, level of complexity. These approaches are compared with three traffic assignment techniques from the literature. Results show that reinforcement learning-based methods yield superior results than traffic assignment methods. Furthermore, the reward function alignment to the global utility, provides a significant improvement in results when compared with the individual function. However, for scenarios with many agents learning simultaneously, both approaches yield equivalent solutions.

Orientation: Excessive and unjustifiable salaries in State Owned Enterprises (SOE’s) have captured the spotlight in recent years. Some employee motivation theorists and recent studies have shown that non monetary rewards are also important when considering the total rewards mix for employees. Research purpose: The primary aim of this study was to survey the perceptions of SOE employees’ of whether they would work harder, have increased motivation levels and remain longer in a company if compensated with higher monetary rewards. The secondary aim was to establish whether different demographic variables have an effect on employees ’perceptions of whether their motivation levels would increase with higher monetary rewards. Motivation for the study: An understanding of these perceptions would enhance knowledge when developing effective reward systems in SOE’s within the South African context.Research design, approach and method: 1000 questionnaires were distributed to SOE employees via the hand delivery and e-mail method. The results from 143 questionnaires were used in the data analyses.Main findings/results: The study found that overall the SOE employees preferred higher monetary rewards and would work harder, be more motivated and stay longer in the company as a result. However, when measured individually, certain non monetary rewards were preferred over receiving higher monetary rewards. The findings also indicate that significant differences exist for the demographic variables, age and grade. Practical/Managerial implications: SOE management can structure reward systems more effectively according to these findings without focussing primarily on money. Based on the research results, an increased understanding of SOE employee’s perception of what motivates them has been achieved. Contribution/value-add: This study has contributed to the body of existing knowledge on employee motivation and its relationship with total rewards within SOE’s in South Africa. In addition, the study has demonstrated that reward preferences differed between certain demographic groups within SOE’s. A total rewards framework, on employee preferences could be designed from the findings. / Dissertation (MBA)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Gordon Institute of Business Science (GIBS) / unrestricted

There is increasing recognition that informal learning is a crucial component of organizational functioning and a necessary complement to the formal training that employees receive. As jobs evolve and demand more complex skills, workers must use informal learning to adapt to ever-changing work requirements. Informal learning is often dependent on voluntary knowledge sharing behavior, as evident among members of mastermind groups or communities of practice. In order to assist organizations, researchers must seek to understand the factors that motivate employees to engage in knowledge sharing behavior. Empirical research on knowledge sharing is nascent. There exists only a handful of quantitative studies examining organizational factors (e.g., rewards) and individual factors (e.g., learning goal orientation and personality) as they relate to knowledge sharing attitudes, intentions, and behaviors. This body of work is also muddied by inconsistent operationalizations of constructs and a lack of an organizing framework. For instance, rewards have been popularly discussed and implemented as tools for incentivizing employees to perform. However, research has produced mixed findings regarding its effects on knowledge sharing behavior in organizations. There has also been a variety of different rewards examined without clear consistency in the results. The present study addressed several research needs of this area. First, two separate samples were used to assess the psychometric properties (i.e., reliability and factor structure) of new measurement instruments developed for rewards, knowledge sharing behavior, and organizational learning culture. Item content validation was performed with 14 subject matter experts. Scale dimensionality was established using exploratory factor analysis with data from a sample of 230 university students and confirmatory factor analysis with data from a second sample of 569 participants. Hypothesized relationships among dimensions of constructs as well as moderators were examined using regression analyses. Results did not support the popularly conjectured intrinsic versus extrinsic distinction between rewards. Results showed that rewards predicted knowledge asking but did not predict knowledge giving behavior. Non-financial rewards were found to vary in motivational value for knowledge giving depending on an individual’s career stage. Three dimensions of goal orientation exhibited differential relationships with knowledge sharing behavior. Finally, this study demonstrated that the negative relationship between performance avoid orientation and knowledge giving was attenuated in a strong organizational learning culture, providing empirical support for the situational strength theory. The findings from this work can inform organizational decision makers of how to harness the motivational value of rewards by understanding the career concerns of employees. This work also contributes by identifying person and situation factors that interact to facilitate a crucial kind of informal learning activity, knowledge sharing behavior in organizations.

Purpose: The purpose of this study is an attempt to find out the influence motivation has on employees’ job satisfaction based on our case which is First Bank Nigeria Plc. To be able to meet this objective, several motivation theories were discussed and intrinsic/extrinsic motivational factors as found in related literature were taken into consideration. Methodology: The researchers carried out a qualitative study where secondary data was obtained from textbooks and peer reviewed journal articles from the school library in order to identify existing scientific knowledge concerning this topic. Also, primary data used were collected through Skype interview and through email with the aid of formulated open-ended questions. Both the company and the interviewee were chosen based on convenience sampling. Data obtained underwent a reduction phase as the authors reduced the work into keywords. Data was later organized and emerged patterns were interpreted for better understanding by the reader. Result & Conclusions: From this study, the authors found that both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation enhances employees’ job satisfaction. This was evident through the various factors like increment in salary, perceived equality in pay, conducive environment amongst others numerated by respondents as what will increase their satisfaction in the work they do. Limitations: The study is limited to one case company and thirteen respondents from a specific branch. As such the results obtained cannot be easily generalized. Secondly, employees whose job did not connect directly to banking activities like securities, messengers and cleaners were not considered in this study. Scope for further studies: Due to our limitations, we suggest that similar studies should be carried out on the influence of motivation on employees’ job satisfaction in several banks and including securities, messengers and cleaners to see if the results differ from the results of our study. Also our theoretical framework can be extended by showing the influence job satisfaction or job dissatisfaction has on employees’ attitude towards work. Contribution of the thesis: This study contributes to the previous literature on the concept of motivation and job satisfaction especially the influence motivation has on employees’ job satisfaction. The practical implications of this research work for managers is to pay their workers appropriately in order to enhance job satisfaction.

The astonishing diversity of floral form in angiosperm plants is driven in large part by preferences of pollinators for various floral traits, including learned preferences. Remarkably, almost all of a vast literature on learning and memory in pollinators relates to nectar as a reward, even though bees and many flies, beetles, and butterflies must collect pollen. In this study, we asked if bees formed preferences for plant species from which pollen had been collected successfully. Using absolute conditioning, we gave pollen foraging bees experience with plant species that offered only pollen rewards. Naive bees generally showed modest preferences, whereas experienced bees adopted strong preferences for those species over alternative species not previously experienced. Learned preferences were retained for at least 24 h, consistent with preferences learned with nectar rewards. These experience-mediated changes in preference raised the possibility that bees formed associations between particular floral features and pollen rewards. We therefore asked if learned preferences required that bees successfully collect pollen. Using differential conditioning, we determined that learned preferences were strongly influenced by receipt of a pollen reward. In a final experiment, we characterized the importance of 2 floral features, the corolla and the anther, in the expression of learned preferences. Although experience altered responses to both floral parts, responses to anthers were influenced more strongly. We discuss recent evidence in the literature for associative learning with pollen rewards and propose that learned preferences in the context of pollen collection have played an important role in floral display evolution.

Non-equity Crowdfunding: Funding Success and Dynamics on Hithit Veronika Machová Abstract Non-equity crowdfunding, as an innovative way of financing new ideas, has been growing enormously over recent years. Crowdfunding projects are often characterized by a predetermined monetary goal and the length of the campaign. Furthermore, potential contributors can observe the level of funding provided by others, which suggests that details of previous contributions play an essential role in funding behavior. We obtain data from the Czech crowdfunding platform Hithit, which allow us to empirically analyze the determinants of success and the funding dynamics of crowdfunding projects. Outcomes from several probit regressions indicate that shorter campaigns and campaigns offering private rewards of lower value are more likely to be successful-but these results do not demonstrate causality. A short campaign signals confidence; this positive signaling effect outweighs the marketing- opportunities effect of a long campaign. Applying fixed effects model to panel data, we show that the amount of contributions is negatively associated with the level of funding already achieved, providing evidence of free-riding effect. However, the effect of past contributions is reversed in the final phase of the campaign as the risk of...

In view of the rapid decrease in the number of students opting to train as teachers and the increasing numbers of teachers leaving the profession; the teaching profession in South Africa is indeed what Duke (1984) termed “imperilled”. While quantitative research identifies remuneration to be the foremost factor attributed to the dissatisfaction of teachers in South Africa as elsewhere; the main purpose of this study was to explore teachers’ perceptions of remuneration. Nine qualified women teachers aged between 25 and 35 years of age, who had been teaching for at least two years and less than ten, volunteered to take part in this study. The sample was drawn from government schools in a suburban part of Johannesburg. This research was based on the information gathered from a short biographical questionnaire followed by in-depth, semi-structured interviews. A process of language sensitive thematic content analysis was employed in order to analyse the data from the interviews. The research indicates that in the decision to enter the teaching profession, notions of the perception that teaching is a vocation predominate. An emphasis on the related intrinsic rewards to be gained from teaching was found to receive greater focus than monetary concerns on entering the profession. The participants expressed that women are more likely to enter the teaching profession while even though men may share the passion to teach, they are seriously deterred by the poor levels of remuneration. The participants explained that as the contexts of their lives changed, so too did their perceptions of remuneration, often resulting in an increasing emphasis on the importance of better remuneration to meet their and their families’ financial needs. Related to this, it was found that as South African teachers were exposed to an almost overwhelming number of challenges, the participants began to experience fewer intrinsic rewards which seemed to impact negatively on their perceptions of remuneration. Thus of the nine participants, only two indicated their long-term commitment to the teaching profession whereas the remaining seven all had plans to leave the profession in search of better remuneration.

The rise in the employee turnover rates is increasing the concerns amongst the organizations in retaining the employees in the workplace. The higher turnover rates are threatening the business capability in earning higher profits. Grounded by the leadership and motivational theories, the following study aims explore that how the succession planning strategies could help in retaining the employees in the organization. Swedish organizations are chosen as the area of the study. In order to fulfill the purpose of the research, the data has been gathered from primary and secondary tools. The secondary tools used in the study are past papers related to succession planning and employee retention as well as information collected through SHRM/Globoforce employee recognition survey and OECD statistical data. The primary tools used in the study are semi-structured questionnaire and face to face interviews. The data analysis involved the evaluation of the secondary data, face to face interview and classification of themes on the basis of semi-structured questionnaire. By means of the thematic analysis, four main themes were emerged. The findings showed that in order to retain the employees fruitfully, Swedish organizations should work on planning career development programs, identify and develop the talent pool and offer non-monetary rewards to the employees. This will enable them to be committed with the company and stay with it for a longer time. The implications for the study is that it will bring a positive social change by adapting the effective succession planning practices which will as a result help to increase the morale of employee and enhance the business profits by retaining the talented employees in the organization. The study has some limitations on the basis of which, it is suggested to the future scholars to conduct a quantitative study by taking a longitudinal approach in order to validate the findings on the statistical grounds as well.

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Nonprofit organizations' managers face challenges in creating nonmonetary rewards to increase the job satisfaction of staff and productivity of the organization. The purpose of this multiple case study was to explore the nonmonetary reward strategies that nonprofit organizations' managers used to increase employee job satisfaction. The targeted population included nonprofit managers who had successfully implemented nonmonetary reward strategies to increase employee job satisfaction. Kalleberg's theory of job satisfaction was the conceptual framework for the study. The primary data collection method was semistructured, face-to-face interviews with 3 participants. Secondary data sources included review of company documents such as employee evaluations and work-from-home request forms. Methodological triangulation of data and information was accomplished by comparing data collected from interviews and company documents. Through coding and thematic analysis, 3 primary themes emerged: experience, effective communication, and flexibility. The primary conclusion of this study was that managers use personal experiences as an employee to develop and implement effective reward systems. The implications of this study for social change include the potential to improve employee job satisfaction in nonprofit organizations, which may result in improved employee productivity and promote social development in the community.