Over the past two decades, research into worker well-being has been greatly influenced by the demands-control-support models of Robert Karasek (1979; Karasek & Theorell, 1990). These models propose that worker strain and active learning are determined by particular combinations of job demands, job control and social support. Specifically, incumbents of jobs that are high in demands, low in control, and low in support are expected to show high levels of strain, whilst incumbents of jobs that are high in all three job factors are expected to display high levels of activity, learning and participation, both on and off the job. The models also propose that prolonged exposure to combinations of these job conditions influence workers' accumulated anxiety and sense of mastery. If empirically substantiated, Karasek's models have profound implications for the design of "healthy work" environments. This thesis represents an attempt to clarify, critically evaluate, extend and test Karasek's models. Self-report data, as well as information obtained from a collateral source, are used to assess the independent linear, quadratic, additive and interactive effects of Karasek's job factors. Multivariate models of the direct and indirect relationships between the job factors and a range of possible antecedents and consequences are proposed and submitted to empirical test. Two major, and several minor, studies, all using samples of school teachers, are reported. The first major study used a cross-sectional design, and self-report measures of demands, control and job stressors to predict several indices of worker strain (e.g., stress, job dissatisfaction, somatic complaints). Analyses of data from 421 teachers revealed independent and additive effects of demands and control on strain, but few quadratic or interactive effects. Demands and control also predicted job stressfulness, with additional evidence showing that the effects of demands on this outcome were buffered by perceived job control. The second major study tested Karasek's models using a two-wave full panel design, and an expanded set of predictor, moderating and outcome variables. Data were collected from 987 teachers, as well as from a significant other person nominated by the majority of these teachers. Demands, control and social support were shown to predict stressors and strain, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Results generally confirmed Karasek's additive strain hypotheses. Consistent evidence of interactive effects of the job factors on strain was not found in the full sample of teachers, but was obtained when analyses were limited to a sub-sample of new-start workers. Relationships between the job factors and measures of worker activity and participation were also found. However, rather than all three job factors acting conjunctively, demands and support from supervisors predicted some outcomes (e.g., the number of hours teachers worked), control and support from co-workers predicted other outcomes (e.g., self- and other-reported levels of vigour-activity), whilst a further set of indices (e.g., participation in organized activities outside of work) were not strongly related to any of the job factors. Exposure to highly demanding jobs was associated with increases over time in levels of neuroticism, whilst exposure to high control job conditions was associated with increases in levels of mastery. The demands-mastery relationship was buffered by perceptions of job control. Limited support was obtained for a set of additional predictions regarding the role of leadership style in shaping job factors, and hence worker strain. In general, the results from this research confirm past findings regarding the effects of job demands, control and social support on strain. The research makes several important contributions to the literature. From a research methods viewpoint, new, congruent and specific measures of the job factors, activity-participation outcomes and leadership dimensions were developed. Also novel was the use of structural equation techniques to test competing longitudinal models that involved continuously-measured interaction terms. Substantively, the research represents one of most comprehensive investigations yet conducted into Karasek's models. The test of the dynamic person-environment hypotheses is believed to be unprecedented in the literature, as is the attempt to demonstrate links from leader behaviour, through the job factors, to strain. Implications for Karasek's models include the need to reject the additive hypothesis in relation to activity-participation, and to extend the models to incorporate organizational antecedents of demands, control and support. More practically, the research reinforces the importance of providing "control-enhancing" opportunities for workers exposed to highly demanding jobs. Recommendations for future research include the need to test an expanded model of healthy work using multi-wave longitudinal designs, samples of new-start workers, and multiple (including objective) measures of key variables.

<p>Syftet med denna studie har varit att få ökad förståelse för hur projektledare upplever sin psykosociala arbetsmiljö. För att uppnå detta syfte har vi genom en kvalitativ fallstudie på ett telecomföretag i Karlstad undersökt hur projektledare upplever sin psykosociala arbetsmiljö. Vi har även undersökt vilka faktorer i projektledarens yrkesroll som kan påverka den psykosociala arbetsmiljön.</p><p>Vi har utifrån Karasek/Johnsons modell delat upp den psykosociala arbetsmiljön i arbetskrav, egenkontroll och socialt stöd. Arbetskrav handlar rent konkret om de fysiska och psykiska krav som ställs på individen för att denne skall kunna genomföra sitt arbete. Egenkontrollen på arbetsplatsen kan delas upp i två delar. Dessa två delar är kvalifikationsgrad och beslutsutrymme. Kvalifikationsgraden handlar om huruvida individen får möjlighet att lära sig nya saker och får utnyttja sina kvalifikationer i arbetet. Beslutsutrymmet handlar om i vilken utsträckning arbetet tillåter att individen själv får avgöra hur det egna arbetet skall läggas upp. Socialt stöd kan vara av olika slag men handlar främst om individens sociala relation till ledning, arbetskamrater och kunder.</p><p>Det empiriska resultatet visar att det ställs höga krav på de anställda projektledarna vid den valda organisationen. Kravbilden försvåras av att många av kraven är outtalade och/eller diffusa. Kraven kommer dessutom från många olika personer både i och utanför organisationen vilket försvårar arbetssituationen för våra respondenter. Respondenternas egenkontroll är ganska komplex. Respondenterna har inga mandat i sitt arbete trots en ledande position. De beslut de fattar måste många gånger kontrolleras med chefer och ledning. De upplever dock att de har påverkansmöjligheter både uppåt och nedåt i organisationen. Respondenterna styr även helt över sin egen tid och kan disponera den precis som de önskar vilket ökar egenkontrollen betydligt. Men då kraven är så pass höga och påfrestande blir respondenterna låsta i möten och rutinarbete och måste ofta ta itu med de problem som uppstår. Den egenkontroll som i grunden är ganska hög stramas på så vis åt och minskar. Respondenternas sociala stöd är ganska svårbedömt då det finns olika typer av socialt stöd. Den typ av socialt stöd som respondenterna uttrycker som det viktigaste är det tekniska stödet eller som litteraturen beskriver som det informativa och det instrumentella stödet. Informativt stöd innebär tillgång till information från andra människor i form av råd och förslag vilket kan användas av individen för att bemästra en situation. Det instrumentella sociala stödet handlar om konkret samarbete, det vill säga handgripligt stöd. Detta stöd upplevs från respondenterna som tillfredställande. Det värderande stödet som tar sin form i feedback finns det en uttryckt avsaknad av. Även det emotionella stödet är relativt lågt. Vissa respondenter känner att det finns en respekt och ett emotionellt stöd från ledning och arbetskamrater men inte i överflöd. Några respondenter uttrycker även en ensamhet och isolering i den position som de befinner sig i. Avsaknaden av en tillhörighet och någon jämbördig är också uttryckt.</p><p>Vi kan utifrån resultatet konstatera att projektledarrollen ligger i risk för en negativ psykosocial arbetsmiljö. Detta innebär inte att våra respondenter mår dåligt. Att den psykosociala arbetsmiljön är negativ behöver inte ge ett direkt resultat på dem som utsätts för den men risken för utbrändhet eller psykosomatiska besvär ökar. Trots denna negativa psykosociala arbetsmiljö har respondenterna uttryckt att arbetet som projektledare är stimulerande och roligt.</p> / <p>The purpose with this research has been to gain more knowledge about how project managers experience their psychosocial work environment. In order to fulfil this purpose, have we through a qualitative case study of a telecom company in Karlstad, examined how project managers experience their psychosocial work environment. We have also studied which factors in the project managers role that can affect the psychosocial work environment.</p><p>We have, based on Johnson and Karasek’s model divided the psychosocial work environment into (1) job demands, (2) job control and (3) social support. Job demands deal with the actual physical and psychic demands on the individual for him or her to be able to perform the job. Job control in the workplace can be divided into two parts, which are (1) skill discretion and (2) decision authority. Skill discretion is whether the individual gets the opportunity to learn new tasks and use his or hers qualifications in the job. Decision authority is to what extent the job allows the individual to decide over work methods. Social support can be of different kinds but is foremost about the individual’s social relation to management, colleagues and clients.</p><p>The empirical findings show that there are high demands on the project leaders at the studied organisation. The demands are increased by the fact that many of them are implicit and/or unclear. Moreover, the demands come from many different persons both from within and outside the organisation, which makes the work situation more difficult for our respondents. The respondents job control is quite complex. Despite their leading positions, they have no real mandate. Decisions they make must many times be controlled by supervisors and management. Nevertheless, the respondents feel that they have the possibility to influence both upwards and downwards in the organisation. The respondents also fully control their own time and can utilise it according to their wish, which increases the job control considerably. Although when the demands are so high and trying, the respondents get tied up in meetings and routine tasks and are often forced to deal with problems arising. In this way, the job control that basically is quite high gets tightened up and diminishes. The respondent’s social support is rather difficult to assess when there are different kinds of social support. The type of social support which the respondents express as the most important one is the technical support, the literature describes this as the informative or instrumental support. Informative support is the access to information from other persons in the form of advice and suggestions that can be used by the individual to overcome a situation. Instrumental support is concrete cooperation, in other words physical support. This kind of support is experienced by the respondents as rewarding. There is an expressed lack of evaluating support in the form of feedback. There is even quite low emotional support. Some respondents do experience respect and emotional support from management and co-workers, however not in abundance. Some respondents even express a loneliness and isolation in the position they find themselves in. They also express the lack of affiliation and individuals equal in merit.</p><p>We can from the result state that the role of project manager is risking a negative psychosocial work environment. This does not mean that our respondents have a bad helth, neither physical or psychological. A negative psychosocial work environment does not have to result in direct effects on individuals exposed to it, still there is an increased risk for getting ‘burned out’ or having psychosomatic troubles. Despite this negative psychosocial work environment, the respondents have expressed the role of a project manager as fun and stimulating.</p>

Syftet med denna studie har varit att få ökad förståelse för hur projektledare upplever sin psykosociala arbetsmiljö. För att uppnå detta syfte har vi genom en kvalitativ fallstudie på ett telecomföretag i Karlstad undersökt hur projektledare upplever sin psykosociala arbetsmiljö. Vi har även undersökt vilka faktorer i projektledarens yrkesroll som kan påverka den psykosociala arbetsmiljön. Vi har utifrån Karasek/Johnsons modell delat upp den psykosociala arbetsmiljön i arbetskrav, egenkontroll och socialt stöd. Arbetskrav handlar rent konkret om de fysiska och psykiska krav som ställs på individen för att denne skall kunna genomföra sitt arbete. Egenkontrollen på arbetsplatsen kan delas upp i två delar. Dessa två delar är kvalifikationsgrad och beslutsutrymme. Kvalifikationsgraden handlar om huruvida individen får möjlighet att lära sig nya saker och får utnyttja sina kvalifikationer i arbetet. Beslutsutrymmet handlar om i vilken utsträckning arbetet tillåter att individen själv får avgöra hur det egna arbetet skall läggas upp. Socialt stöd kan vara av olika slag men handlar främst om individens sociala relation till ledning, arbetskamrater och kunder. Det empiriska resultatet visar att det ställs höga krav på de anställda projektledarna vid den valda organisationen. Kravbilden försvåras av att många av kraven är outtalade och/eller diffusa. Kraven kommer dessutom från många olika personer både i och utanför organisationen vilket försvårar arbetssituationen för våra respondenter. Respondenternas egenkontroll är ganska komplex. Respondenterna har inga mandat i sitt arbete trots en ledande position. De beslut de fattar måste många gånger kontrolleras med chefer och ledning. De upplever dock att de har påverkansmöjligheter både uppåt och nedåt i organisationen. Respondenterna styr även helt över sin egen tid och kan disponera den precis som de önskar vilket ökar egenkontrollen betydligt. Men då kraven är så pass höga och påfrestande blir respondenterna låsta i möten och rutinarbete och måste ofta ta itu med de problem som uppstår. Den egenkontroll som i grunden är ganska hög stramas på så vis åt och minskar. Respondenternas sociala stöd är ganska svårbedömt då det finns olika typer av socialt stöd. Den typ av socialt stöd som respondenterna uttrycker som det viktigaste är det tekniska stödet eller som litteraturen beskriver som det informativa och det instrumentella stödet. Informativt stöd innebär tillgång till information från andra människor i form av råd och förslag vilket kan användas av individen för att bemästra en situation. Det instrumentella sociala stödet handlar om konkret samarbete, det vill säga handgripligt stöd. Detta stöd upplevs från respondenterna som tillfredställande. Det värderande stödet som tar sin form i feedback finns det en uttryckt avsaknad av. Även det emotionella stödet är relativt lågt. Vissa respondenter känner att det finns en respekt och ett emotionellt stöd från ledning och arbetskamrater men inte i överflöd. Några respondenter uttrycker även en ensamhet och isolering i den position som de befinner sig i. Avsaknaden av en tillhörighet och någon jämbördig är också uttryckt. Vi kan utifrån resultatet konstatera att projektledarrollen ligger i risk för en negativ psykosocial arbetsmiljö. Detta innebär inte att våra respondenter mår dåligt. Att den psykosociala arbetsmiljön är negativ behöver inte ge ett direkt resultat på dem som utsätts för den men risken för utbrändhet eller psykosomatiska besvär ökar. Trots denna negativa psykosociala arbetsmiljö har respondenterna uttryckt att arbetet som projektledare är stimulerande och roligt. / The purpose with this research has been to gain more knowledge about how project managers experience their psychosocial work environment. In order to fulfil this purpose, have we through a qualitative case study of a telecom company in Karlstad, examined how project managers experience their psychosocial work environment. We have also studied which factors in the project managers role that can affect the psychosocial work environment. We have, based on Johnson and Karasek’s model divided the psychosocial work environment into (1) job demands, (2) job control and (3) social support. Job demands deal with the actual physical and psychic demands on the individual for him or her to be able to perform the job. Job control in the workplace can be divided into two parts, which are (1) skill discretion and (2) decision authority. Skill discretion is whether the individual gets the opportunity to learn new tasks and use his or hers qualifications in the job. Decision authority is to what extent the job allows the individual to decide over work methods. Social support can be of different kinds but is foremost about the individual’s social relation to management, colleagues and clients. The empirical findings show that there are high demands on the project leaders at the studied organisation. The demands are increased by the fact that many of them are implicit and/or unclear. Moreover, the demands come from many different persons both from within and outside the organisation, which makes the work situation more difficult for our respondents. The respondents job control is quite complex. Despite their leading positions, they have no real mandate. Decisions they make must many times be controlled by supervisors and management. Nevertheless, the respondents feel that they have the possibility to influence both upwards and downwards in the organisation. The respondents also fully control their own time and can utilise it according to their wish, which increases the job control considerably. Although when the demands are so high and trying, the respondents get tied up in meetings and routine tasks and are often forced to deal with problems arising. In this way, the job control that basically is quite high gets tightened up and diminishes. The respondent’s social support is rather difficult to assess when there are different kinds of social support. The type of social support which the respondents express as the most important one is the technical support, the literature describes this as the informative or instrumental support. Informative support is the access to information from other persons in the form of advice and suggestions that can be used by the individual to overcome a situation. Instrumental support is concrete cooperation, in other words physical support. This kind of support is experienced by the respondents as rewarding. There is an expressed lack of evaluating support in the form of feedback. There is even quite low emotional support. Some respondents do experience respect and emotional support from management and co-workers, however not in abundance. Some respondents even express a loneliness and isolation in the position they find themselves in. They also express the lack of affiliation and individuals equal in merit. We can from the result state that the role of project manager is risking a negative psychosocial work environment. This does not mean that our respondents have a bad helth, neither physical or psychological. A negative psychosocial work environment does not have to result in direct effects on individuals exposed to it, still there is an increased risk for getting ‘burned out’ or having psychosomatic troubles. Despite this negative psychosocial work environment, the respondents have expressed the role of a project manager as fun and stimulating.