The question of the nature and meaning of history has become increasingly important in contemporary thought. In theological circles, it has become the central theme of discussion. Thereare a number of reasons why this is so. The events of the times in which we live have brought about a definite rejection of any knowledge-equals-progress idea of history as well as a call for interpretation of the profound social crises which we confront. The widespread influence of existentialism, with its emphasis on relativism and subjectivism, has brought into question not only the nature of history, in terms of present reality, but also the validit of the historians' pursuits. Beginning from the point of Christian ethics and giving considerable attention to the nature of man, [Reinhold] Niebuhr develops his concept of history quite differently from [Rudolf] Bultmann. It will be the task of this paper to examine the idea of history in the thought of each of these men and then, through a critique and comparison, evaluate each in terms of their strengths and weaknesses as well as their similarities and differences.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the efficacy of a 'Reading Recovery' or an 'Extra Lesson' program in comparison to no intervention for children having difficulty reading in their second year at school. 'Reading Recovery' is an intervention program developed by Marie Clay to assist children who are showing signs of having difficulty learning to read after the first year at school. 'Reading Recovery' uses a whole language approach. The assumption is that given a second chance in a 1:1 structured learning environment, with a trained Reading Recovery teacher, the child will learn to read at an age appropriate level. The 'Extra Lesson' intervention is based on the paradigm of Rudolf Steiner's concept of education, which is a holistic developmental approach. The assumption is that there is a relationship between learning and development in the first seven years of the child's life. The 'Extra Lesson' assessment tests for and identifies developmental difficulties within the first seven years of the child's life and skills testing clarifies if the child has any significant learning difficulty. The 'Extra Lesson' intervention is a 1:1 program, based on a holistic developmental perspective of Rudolf Steiner, to work with the child's difficulties. The efficacy of both interventions was evaluated by using a case study design with embedded forms of analysis and a pre-test post-test non equivalent control group quasi-experimental design to measure the changes in the children's reading skills, processing speed, short term auditory memory and awareness of body geography. Follow up tests were administered 10 months after the post-tests. Case studies have been used to present the data collated for individual subjects and graphs were used for the analysis of group data. All the subjects showed an improvement in reading skills from the pre to the post-test. At follow up all the subjects tested continued to show an improvement in reading skills. Both interventions were shown to affect the subjects reading skills. A comparison of groups showed a slight measurable difference between the 'Reading Recovery', 'Extra Lesson' and Control group, with the 'Extra Lesson' showing a slightly larger improvement in sight word recognition. The treatment and Control groups' Writing Vocabulary increased from the pre to the post-test. The 'Reading Recovery' and Control groups' Writing Vocabulary decreased and the Extra Lesson group continued to improve at follow up. All the groups showed an improvement in short term auditory memory at the post-test and the Control and 'Extra lesson' groups continued to increase slightly at follow up and the 'Reading Recovery' group remained relatively constant. All the groups had relatively constant scores on Processing Speed from the pre to the post- test and at follow up. Neither intervention showed a measurable effect on Processing Speed. All the groups showed an improvement in graphical representation of body geography at the post-test and at follow up. The 'Extra Lesson' group showed the largest improvement at the post-test and long-term. The 'Extra Lesson' intervention had a positive and measurable effect on graphical representation of body geography after the intervention and long-term.

魯道夫•史坦納（Rudolf Steiner，1861-1925）是十九世紀的歐洲哲學家，創立「人智學」學說，主要探求人類本質的了解與拓展，並透過教育使人發展成為均衡協調的全人。本論文研究重點為其幼兒教育思想，主要採取歷史研究法及詮釋學方法對Steiner的思想進行解讀，一方面閱讀Steiner的著作，在作品與自身的視野中進行對話，以期達到視域的交融，另一方面，佐以相關文獻，試圖透過第三者的角度，對Steiner思想的闡明，產生更加深化的作用。嘗試探討的焦點如下： （一） 探討Steiner生平及思想之淵源，以了解其教育思想的基礎。 （二）闡釋Steiner的兒童圖像，了解兒童所具有的本質。 （三）詮釋並分析Steiner全人教育之理想，以及教師應面對之任務。 （四）詮釋並說明Steiner幼兒教育的構想與實施的途徑。 （五）綜合上述研究結果，探究其教育思想對現今幼兒教育的啟示。 第一章為研究動機與方法之說明。第二章主要介紹Steiner之生平，並闡明其思想淵源來自「歌德」、「尼采」、「基督學說」、「輪迴思想」的影響。第三章則勾勒出Steiner所持兒童圖像，說明兒童具有「完整人」、「自由人」、「自主者」、「氣質協調者」之本質，再探究教育上的培養之道。第四章先探討Steiner所面對的教育危機，並分析其教育開展的目標為「精神與心靈的發展與調和」、「培養自我了解與表現的能力」、「道德理想與社會意識的喚醒」、「知識與技能的均衡培養」，其教育開展的原則為依「意志」、「情感」、「思考」的原則循序進行。另外，教師需了解自身與學生的氣質，成為主動的世界建構者、並作一位心靈的藝術家。第五章探討Steiner在幼兒教育方面的構想，幼稚園中需提供幼兒遊戲、美育、生命體驗的活動，以喚醒幼兒的生命活力，培養其成為均衡發展的全人。第六章闡述對Steiner幼兒教育思想的評論，並提出對我國現今幼兒教育的啟示，以及對個人的啟發。 從Steiner的教育理念言之，教育是為了培養人成為具有堅強的意志力、豐富敏銳的情感，以及能清晰思考的全人，在幼兒教育時期，主要透過模仿的方式進行教育，並發展幼兒的個體性，著重身體、精神、心靈的均衡諧調。 第一章 緒論 一、研究動機、問題與目的………………………………1 二、名詞界定………………………………………………7 三、研究方法與流程………………………………………8 四、研究範圍與限制………………………………………10 第二章 Steiner之生平與思想淵源 第一節 生平………………………………………………13 第二節 思想淵源…………………………………………18 一、歌德…………………………………………18 二、尼采…………………………………………26 三、基督學說……………………………………33 四、輪迴思想……………………………………37 第三節 對教育的影響與貢獻……………………………41 第三章 兒童圖像 第一節 完整人……………………………………………47 一、人類構成的四部份…………………………49 二、人類發展的三階段…………………………53 第二節 自由人……………………………………………57 一、自由與教育…………………………………57 二、自由人的發展………………………………60 第三節 自主者……………………………………………65 一、自主與模仿…………………………………65 二、自主者的啟發………………………………67 第四節 氣質調和者………………………………………70 一、兒童的氣質…………………………………71 二、氣質的教育…………………………………79 第四章 全人教育理想 第一節 教育的危機………………………………………89 一、人性異化的危機……………………………90 二、學習窄化的危機……………………………92 第二節 教育的開展………………………………………96 一、教育的目的…………………………………96 二、教育的原則…………………………………103 第三節 教師的任務………………………………………110 一、掌握自身與學生的氣質……………………111 二、成為主動的世界建構者……………………113 三、作一位心靈藝術家…………………………114 第五章 幼兒教育的構想 第一節 遊戲的驅力………………………………………121 一、遊戲即教育…………………………………122 二、遊戲與創造…………………………………126 三、幼稚園的遊戲………………………………126 第二節 藝術的感動………………………………………130 一、生活中的美感經驗…………………………130 二、美育活動的作用……………………………131 三、美育課程……………………………………133 第三節 生命的體驗………………………………………142 一、人與大自然、世界…………………………142 二、人與他人……………………………………143 三、體驗的活動…………………………………144 第六章 結論 第一節 回顧與評論………………………………………149 第二節 對現今幼兒教育的啟示…………………………156 第三節 對個人的啟發……………………………………167 參考書目…………………………………………………170 附錄………………………………………………………176

This study is a critical analysis of Waldorf teacher education in Australia. Beginning with an exposition of the central tenets of Rudolf Steiner's philosophy and educational theory, and his lectures to teachers, the author identifies what he sees as the requirements and characteristics of an ideal Waldorf teacher education program. The study next investigates the development of Waldorf teacher education provision in Australia, and surveys a wide cross-section of teachers and teacher educators in Australian Waldorf schools, to ascertain the type of preparation they received or have contributed to, and elicit their views as to its strengths and weaknesses. These findings are then critically analysed, making comparisons with Waldorf teacher education programs in other countries. The feasibility and implications of including a Waldorf course in a main-stream teacher education Faculty in Australian universities are discussed, in relation to current prevailing government policies regarding schooling and the values and emphases which these impose upon state university courses. The study concludes with proposals for change and improvement in Waldorf teacher education provision in Australia to make Waldorf teachers better prepared to educate Australian children for the 21st century, still in keeping with the essential values of Steiner education. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Graduate School of Education, 1999.

Diss.--Bonn, 2002. / Bibliogr. p. 460-488.

Zugl.: München, Univ., Magisterarbeit, 1998

The core project of this dissertation is a musical and gestural analysis of Studies, Part I: Displaced Spaces, Shocks, Negations, A New Sort of Relationship in Space, Pattern, Tempo, Diversity of Actions, Interactions and Intensities (1946-48) by post-tonal composer Stefan Wolpe (1902-72). The analytical methods consist of Set Class analysis (Allen Forte), the Effort Shape analysis of gesture (Rudolf von Laban), and the Time and Tone analysis of accordion performance (Joseph Macerollo). Wolpe played a leading role in the emergence of abstract expressionism among the painters, poets, dancers and composers of New York in the mid to late 1940s.Wolpe’s oeuvre reveals a unique way of composing in the post-tonal era. Chapter 1 provides the historical and stylistic contextualization of this particular study Displaced Spaces. Chapter 2 is concerned with the musical analysis, presented as pitch class and shape analysis. By nature, Wolpe’s pieces are best described as very physical, which explains the rationalization for the application of the gestural analysis in chapter 3. The Effort Shape graphic notation method by Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) widely used in dance is applied to the musical gestures in Wolpe’s score. Wolpe’s overall title for the series of studies, Music for Any Instrument (1944-49), leaves the choice of instrument to the performer; as these studies require a polyphonic instrument, the classical accordion seems an appropriate choice. Laban’s principles as applied to Wolpe are compared to Macerollo’s Time and Tone analysis to implement gesture on one specific instrument. Battle Piece, a composition for piano solo which he began in 1943 is central to a change in Wolpe’s development: After finishing the first three movements of the piece, Wolpe explored new ideas in the study Displaced Spaces. The degree of coherence between the later parts of Battle Piece and Displaced Spaces is presented in chapter 4 focussing on new techniques that Wolpe was able to formulate through this “detour”. Chapter 5 as a conclusion brings together results from the set theory and the gestural analysis of this particular work in order to bridge the gap between the disciplines of music theory, performance and dance.

The core project of this dissertation is a musical and gestural analysis of Studies, Part I: Displaced Spaces, Shocks, Negations, A New Sort of Relationship in Space, Pattern, Tempo, Diversity of Actions, Interactions and Intensities (1946-48) by post-tonal composer Stefan Wolpe (1902-72). The analytical methods consist of Set Class analysis (Allen Forte), the Effort Shape analysis of gesture (Rudolf von Laban), and the Time and Tone analysis of accordion performance (Joseph Macerollo). Wolpe played a leading role in the emergence of abstract expressionism among the painters, poets, dancers and composers of New York in the mid to late 1940s.Wolpe’s oeuvre reveals a unique way of composing in the post-tonal era. Chapter 1 provides the historical and stylistic contextualization of this particular study Displaced Spaces. Chapter 2 is concerned with the musical analysis, presented as pitch class and shape analysis. By nature, Wolpe’s pieces are best described as very physical, which explains the rationalization for the application of the gestural analysis in chapter 3. The Effort Shape graphic notation method by Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) widely used in dance is applied to the musical gestures in Wolpe’s score. Wolpe’s overall title for the series of studies, Music for Any Instrument (1944-49), leaves the choice of instrument to the performer; as these studies require a polyphonic instrument, the classical accordion seems an appropriate choice. Laban’s principles as applied to Wolpe are compared to Macerollo’s Time and Tone analysis to implement gesture on one specific instrument. Battle Piece, a composition for piano solo which he began in 1943 is central to a change in Wolpe’s development: After finishing the first three movements of the piece, Wolpe explored new ideas in the study Displaced Spaces. The degree of coherence between the later parts of Battle Piece and Displaced Spaces is presented in chapter 4 focussing on new techniques that Wolpe was able to formulate through this “detour”. Chapter 5 as a conclusion brings together results from the set theory and the gestural analysis of this particular work in order to bridge the gap between the disciplines of music theory, performance and dance.

In this dissertation on Hilary Putnam's philosophy, I investigate his development regarding meaning and necessity, in particular mathematical necessity. Putnam has been a leading American philosopher since the end of the 1950s, becoming famous in the 1960s within the school of analytic philosophy, associated in particular with the philosophy of science and the philosophy of language. Under the influence of W.V. Quine, Putnam challenged the logical positivism/empiricism that had become strong in America after World War II, with influential exponents such as Rudolf Carnap and Hans Reichenbach. Putnam agreed with Quine that there are no absolute a priori truths. In particular, he was critical of the notion of truth by convention. Instead he developed a notion of relative a priori truth, that is, a notion of necessary truth with respect to a body of knowledge, or a conceptual scheme. Putnam's position on necessity has developed over the years and has always been connected to his important contributions to the philosophy of meaning. I study Hilary Putnam's development through an early phase of scientific realism, a middle phase of internal realism, and his later position of a natural or commonsense realism. I challenge some of Putnam’s ideas on mathematical necessity, although I have largely defended his views against some other contemporary major philosophers; for instance, I defend his conceptual relativism, his conceptual pluralism, as well as his analysis of the realism/anti-realism debate.

La tesi tracta del Cercle de Viena, i en concret de Carnap a l'etapa que en membre, o almenys treballava en la seva sintonia. En termes bibliogràfics, des de l'Aufbau fins a "Testability and Meaning", amb algunes incursions abans i després d'aquests limits temporals. Tanmateix, es tracten amb profunditat d'altres autors, sobretot Neurath. El treball presenta evidència que els manuals usuals han de ser refets, no tan sols per evitar inexactituds històriques, sinò també perquè les doctrines que es discutien al Cercle són molt més interessants del que ens ha deixat veure la història oficial, que ha agrisat el panorama a causa de la seva persistència en sobretot tres errors d'interpretació històrica.En primer lloc, l'èmfasi en el Cercle com a grup en detriment dels seus membres com a pensadors individuals. Això no ha permès veure la importància de les disputes interiors al grup d'Schlick i ha impedit de percebre l'originalitat llampant i la vigència actual del pensament d'Otto Neurath.En segon lloc, la insistència en el verificacionisme com a tret definitori caracteristic del positivisme lògic. Ajuntada a l'error anterior, ha impedit notar la poca importància que el verificacionisme té al pensament de Carnap i la nul.la presència d'aquesta convicció els escrits de Neurath.Per últim, l'abstracció sistemàtica de l'obra del Cercle de Viena del seu context històric, maniobra més que notable, ja que els anys de màxima expansió del moviment són precisament els anys més turbulents que l'Europa central ha viscut en aquest segle, si deixem a part els anys de guerra.El treball deixa clar que aquests trets constants en la historiografia actual del Cercle de Viena en promouen una imatge distorsionada. La lectura alternativa que proposa ve presentada a través de set capitols.En el primer, el focus se situa sobre la primera obra important de Carnap, "Der Logische Aufbau der Welt". Se n'extreuen les tesis epistemològiques més importants que es tornaran a trobar i adquiriran un significat a l'obra posterior de Carnap.El segon capitol està dedicat a una de les influències importants, i suposadament crucials, que Carnap rebè: la de Ludwig Wittgenstein. Aquesta arribà a l'autor alemany a través del portaveu wittgensteinià dins del Cercle, que, com és sabut, era Moritz Schlick. En conseqüència, el capitol està consagrat als aspectes més significatius i que més van poder colpir Carnap en qualsevol sentit de la filosofia d'Schlick durant els anys trenta. En fer-ho, el mite de la incapacitat positivista per a la comprensió del "Tractatus" queda rebutjat, o almenys molt matisat: Wittgenstein mateix va ser responsable de la peculiar lectura que Schlick i Waismann feren de la obra. Pel que fa als altres, en especial Carnap i Neurath, diticilment se'ls pot fer autors d'una interpretació del "Tractatus" en un sentit diferent del que ho serien, per exemple, dels "Elements" d'Euclides. Tant l'un l'altre utilitzaren les idees contingudes en aquestes obres per als seus propis propòsits sense cap voluntat de fidelitat al seu sentit original.E1 tercer capítol es proposa examinar i valorar una altra important font intel.lectual de la que Carnap begué: la que li facilità el seu amic i company Otto neurath. Aquest capítol gaudeix dùn aire força diferent del que es troba a la resta de la tesi: la raó n'és la necessitat, en explicar el pensament de Neurath, de fer referència als esdeveniments socials i polítics que van trasbalsar Àustria durant els anys entre les dues guerres. La fe de Neurath en la importància politica de la lluita intel.lectual en el paper que el Cercle de Viena havia de jugar-hi fan ineludible, en tractar l'obra del sociòleg vienès -el més "Wiener Kreis" de tots els integrants del grup-, la incursió més enllà de la pura història interna de les idees, la que es pot anomenar "sociologia dels pensadors". Només així es pot aconseguir una correcta visió del pensament de Neurath i besllumar part dels motius que jauen sota alguns intents teorètics de Carnap.El capítol quart torna a centrar-se en l'obra de Rudolf Carnap, però ho fa des d'una perspectiva enriquida: després de l'examen de la influència de Wittgenstein sobre el Cercle -el verificacionisme-, i un cop entesa la proposta radical de canvi de la concepció filosòfica inicial del grup vienès que Neurath protagonitzà, és possible llançar ullada sobre la manera pròpia en què Carnap incorporà aquests elements al seu pensament anterior, materialitzat a l'Aufbau, i qüestionar-se fins a quin mateix pensament va ser abandonat. El capital vol deixar clar que l'Aufbau conté l'epistemologia de Carnap fins que aquest decideix renunciar a fer epistemologia, o almenys a fer-ne en el sentit clàssic. Aquest procés té diverses etapes, i es pot considerar culminat a finals de l'any 1932. Un ingredient notable de la interpretació aquí proposada és la relativització del paper que en aquests anys de transició pren l'element considerat des de sempre més definitori dels positivistes vienesos en general: el verificacionisme. Finalment s'insisteix en la importància de les idees de Popper en la constitució del pensament madur de Carnap.El capitol cinquè s'ocupa de la que tal vegada és la màxima consecució carnapiana: la "Logische Syntax der Sprache", de l'any 34. Ho fa des d'una perspectiva només secundàriament critica: es tracta de situar les diverses influències que coexisteixen al llibre i d'examinar les tesis principals, intentant d'entendre tant com es pugui la postura filosòfica sintàctica de Carnap, cosa que inclou l'esforç en ser comprensibles, i fins i tot plausibles, afirmacions que des de posicions diferents serien del tot rebutjables.El tema del sisté capítol continua essent la "Logische Syntax", però la perspectiva canvia: s'examina ara la crítica que diversos autors, i notablemente Quine, van adreçar des de molt aviat a la perspectiva convencionalista de la veritat lògica continguda a l'obra de Carnap. Una atenta avaluació d'aquesta critica facilita un enteniment més a fons dels propòsits carnapians. D'altra banda, és important veure quins són els pressupòsits de la Syntax pel que fa a la relació entre les paraules i les coses i la disciplina que l'estudia. Això ajuda a entendre la facilitat amb què Carnap va fer el trànsit a la concepció semàntica. L'últim capítol és híbrid. El seu gruix està dedicat a l'examen de la realització que Carnap emprèn a "Testability and Meaning" i que no és més que l'apliació de les eines desenvolupades a la "Logische Syntax": l'elaboració d'un llenguatge útil er a la ciència. L'article ha estat vist com el primer d'una concepción de la filosofia de la ciència vigente fins als anys seixanta, i com a conseqüència llegit a la llum d'aquesta tradición que origina. Cal, però, redimensionar-la històricament i tornar a entendre el lloc que li correspon dins del programa sintàctic, i examinar de la mateixa manera les noves tesis sobre el fisicalisme que conté.Els últims dos paràgrafs presenten algunes de les més importants conclusions. / The dissertation is about the Vienna Circle, specifically about Carnap at the time he was member of it, or at least he worked in its tune. In bibliographical terms, from the "Aufbau" to "Testability and Meaning", with some incursions before and after this temporal bonds. Anyway, other authors, specially Neurath, are treated with some depth. The work shows enough evidence to believe the thoughts that the Circle discussed are more interesting than what official leads us to think. That is due mainly because of the persistence of three mistakes ot historical interpretation.First, the stress in the view of the Circle as a group rather as to think of the members as individual thinkers. This has not allowed to see the importance of the inner discussions and the originality and current interest of Otto Neurath's thought.Second, the insistence in verificationism as a characteristic point of Logical Positivism. Together with the first mistake, this has prevented to realize how little important is verificationism in Carnap's thought, and the absence of this conviction in Neurath's writings.Last, the systematic abstraction of the work of the Circle from this historical context. This is noteworthy, because the years of expansion of the movement are the more troubled years of the century in Central Europe, excluding war time.The work makes clear that these constant traits in the current historiography of Vienna Circle bring a distorted image, and propounds an alternative lecture, centred in Carnap's work, where the different influences from Schlick (and through him, from Wittgenstein), from Neurath (and his socio-political positions), and from Popper are evaluated. In this way, it is possible to give a sense to the evolution from phenomenalism to physicalism and the syntactic point of view, all them thoroughly discussed in this work.