La presencia de puentes grúa en naves industriales significa un esfuerzo adicional para la estructura de la nave debido a las solicitaciones de carga adicionales que ésta representa. Así, se requiere un análisis específico y completo para diseñar una estructura resistente a los esfuerzos generados por la carga proveniente del puente-grúa. El objetivo de este artículo es elaborar un documento que sirva como guía para un correcto análisis y diseño de la viga que sostiene al puente-grúa, conocida como viga carrilera; lo anterior a partir de la comparación de normativas de algunos países latinoamericanos y la norma norteamericana. Este análisis incluye el conjunto de esfuerzos generados por la operación de un puente-grúa. Finalmente, la propuesta o método se validará con un ejemplo de puente grúa de capacidad de izaje de hasta 10 toneladas. / The presence of travelling cranes in industrial buildings means an additional effort for the structure of the ship due to the additional loads. Thus, a specific and complete analysis is required, both static and dynamic, to design a structure resistant to the efforts generated by the load coming from the travelling crane. The objective of this article is to elaborate a document that serves as a guide for a correct analysis and design of the beam that supports the travelling crane, known as the rail beam; from the comparison of regulations of some Latin American countries and the North American norms. This analysis includes the set of efforts generated by the operation of a bridge crane. Finally, the proposal or method will be validated with an example of a crane lifting capacity of up to 10 tons. / Trabajo de investigación

Runway friction testing is performed in order to enhance the safety of aircraft operation on runways. Preventative maintenance friction surveys are performed to determine if there is any deterioration of the frictional resistance on the surface over a period of time and to determine if there is a need for corrective maintenance. In addition operational performance friction surveys are performed to determine frictional properties of a pavement surface in order to provide corrective action information in maintaining safe take-off or landing performance limits. A major issue encountered in both types of friction evaluation on runways is the standardization of the friction measurements from different Continuous Friction Measuring Equipment (CFME). The International Friction Index (IFI) has been formulated to address the above issue and determine the friction condition of a given runway is a standardized format. The ASTM recommended standard procedure to compute the IFI of a runway surface employs two distinct parameters to express the IFI; F60 is the friction value adjusted to a slip speed of 60 km/h and correlated to the standard Dynamic Friction Tester (DFT) measurement. And Sp is the speed constant which is governed by the mean profile depth of that surface. The primary objective of this thesis is to investigate the reliability of the current ASTM procedure to standardize runway friction measurements in terms of IFI. Based on the ASTM standard procedure, two equipment specific calibration constants (A and B) are assigned for each CFME during calibration. Then, in subsequent testing those calibrations constants can be used to adjust the equipment measurements to reliable IFI values. Just as much as A and B are presumed to be characteristic of any given CFME, they are also expected to be independent of the operational speed. The main objective of the annual NASA Runway Friction Workshop held in Wallops Island, Virginia, is to calibrate commonly used CFMEs such that all calibrated equipment would provide a standard reading (i.e. IFI) on a particular surface. During validation of the existing ASTM procedure using the NASA Runway Friction Workshop data it was observed that the single value-based IFI predictions of the calibrated CFMEs were inaccurate resulting in low correlations with DFT measured values. Therefore, a landing pilot should not be left to make a safe decision with such an uncertain single standard friction value because the actual standard friction value could very well be much less than this value. Hence a modified procedure was formulated to treat the calibration constants A and B as normally distributed random variables even for the same CFME. The new procedure can be used to predict the IFI (F60) of a given runway surface within a desired confidence interval. Since the modified procedure predicts a range of IFI for a given runway surface within two bounds, a landing pilot's decision would be made easier based on his/her experience on critical IFI values. However, even the validation of the modified procedure presented some difficulties since the DFT measurements on a few validated surfaces plotted completely outside the range of F60 predicted by the modified method. Furthermore, although the ASTM standard stipulates the IFI (F60) predictions to be independent of the testing speed, data from the NASA Runway Friction Workshop indicates a significant difference in the predictions from the two testing speeds of 65 km/hr and 95 km/hr, with the results from the 65 km/hr tests yielding better correlations with the corresponding DFT measurements. The above anomaly could be attributed to the significantly different FR60 values obtained when the 65 km/hr data (FR65) and 95 km/hr data (FR95) are adjusted to a slip speed of 60 km/hr. Extended analytical investigations revealed that the expected testing speed independency of the FR60 for a particular CFME cannot be supported by the ASTM defined general linear relationship between Sp and the mean profile depth which probably has been formulated to satisfy a multitude of CFMEs operating on a number of selected test surfaces. This very reason can also be attributed to the above mentioned outliers observed during the validation of the modified procedure.

Runway systems at airports have been identified as a major source of delay in the aviation system and efficient runway operations are, therefore, important to maintain and/or increase the capacity of the entire aviation system. The goal of the airport runway scheduling problem is to schedule a set of aircraft and minimize a given objective while maintaining separation requirements and enforcing other operational constraints. Uncertain factors such as weather, surrounding traffic and pilot behavior affect when aircraft can be scheduled, and these factors need to be considered in planning models. In this thesis we propose two stochastic programs to address the stochastic airport runway scheduling problem and similarly structured machine scheduling problems. In the first part, we develop a two-stage stochastic integer programming model and analyze it by developing alternative formulations and solution methods. As part of our analysis, we first show that a restricted version of the stochastic runway scheduling problem is equivalent to a machine scheduling problem on a single machine with sequence dependent setup times and stochastic due dates. We then extend this restricted model by considering characteristics specific to the runway scheduling problem and present two different stochastic integer programming models. We derive some tight valid inequalities for these formulations, and we propose a solution methodology based on sample average approximation and Lagrangian based scenario decomposition. Realistic data sets are then used to perform a detailed computational study involving implementations and analyses of several different configurations of the models. The results from the computational tests indicate that practically implementable truncated versions of the proposed solution algorithm almost always produce very high quality solutions. In the second part, we propose a sampling based stochastic program for a general machine scheduling problem with similar characteristics as the airport runway scheduling problem. The sampling based approach allows us to capture more detailed aspects of the problem, such as taxiway operations crossing active runways. The model is based on the stochastic branch and bound algorithm with several enhancements to improve the computational performance. More specifically, we incorporate a method to dynamically update the sample sizes in various parts of the branching tree, effectively decreasing the runtime without worsening the solution quality. When applied to runway scheduling, the algorithm is able to produce schedules with makespans that are 5% to 7% shorter than those obtained by optimal deterministic methods. Additional contributions in this thesis include the development of a global cost function, capturing all relevant costs in airport runway scheduling and trading off different, sometimes conflicting, objectives. We also analyze the impact of including environmental factors in the scheduling process.

Advances in hardware and pattern recognition techniques, along with the widespread utilization of remote sensing satellites, have urged the development of automatic target detection systems. Automatic detection of airports is particularly essential, due to the strategic importance of these targets. In this thesis, a detection method is proposed for airport runways, which is the most distinguishing element of an airport. This method, which operates on large optical satellite images, is composed of a segmentation process based on textural properties, and a runway shape detection stage. In the segmentation process, several local textural features are extracted including not only low level features such as mean, standard deviation of image intensity and gradient, but also Zernike Moments, Circular-Mellin Features, Haralick Features, as well as features involving Gabor Filters, Wavelets and Fourier Power Spectrum Analysis. Since the subset of the mentioned features, which have a role in the discrimination of airport runways from other structures and landforms, cannot be predicted, Adaboost learning algorithm is employed for both classification and determining the feature subset, due to its feature selector nature. By means of the features chosen in this way, a coarse representation of possible runway locations is obtained, as a result of the segmentation operation. Subsequently, the runway shape detection stage, based on a novel form of Hough Transform, is performed over the possible runway locations, in order to obtain final runway positions. The proposed algorithm is examined with experimental work using a comprehensive data set consisting of large and high resolution satellite images and successful results are achieved.

The UK Civil Aviation Authority has recognised the need for protection against the runway overrun over and above the standard protection recommended by ICAO. Normal protection for the aircraft is provided in ICAO's Annex 14 by the strip at the end of a runway, and a recommendation for the installation of a Runway End Safety Area (RESA). In the UK, the CAA has stated that as part of their safety management system the aerodrome licensee should review the RESA distance requirement for their individual circumstances on an annual basis through a risk assessment. However, current industry knowledge of circumstantial factors in runway overruns is limited. Also, current models that are used to determine likely overrun wreckage locations and RESA dimensions take no account of the operational conditions surrounding the overruns or the aerodrome being assessed. This study has attempted to address these needs by highlighting common factors present in overrun occurrences through the compilation and analysis of a database of runway overruns, and through the construction of a model of wreckage location that takes account of the conditions at an individual aerodrome. A model of overrun probability has been constructed and the consequences of an overrun have been examined. One outcome of the study is an awareness that the industry is in an extremely poor state of knowledge of operational characteristics of non-accident flights, which if not addressed will be a major barrier to future advancement of aviation safety improvement and research.

Este trabalho apresenta um estudo focado na implementação de metas de manutenção funcional de pavimentos flexíveis aeroportuários de pistas de pouso e decolagem. Os aeroportos além de terem que desempenhar sua função conforme especificado pela Agência Nacional de Aviação Civil (ANAC), devem também preservar os pavimentos existentes em boas condições e promover segurança e conforto ao usuário. Ainda que haja critérios para definição de estratégias de manutenção dos pavimentos para as pistas de pouso e decolagem em outros países, é recomendado para o caso de aeroportos no Brasil a consideração de outros parâmetros relacionados a patologias e bacias transversais na superfície do pavimento. O objetivo desse trabalho é propor metas para uma manutenção efetiva para avaliação funcional de pavimentos aeroportuários flexíveis e com esse intuito, foram feitos levantamentos bibliográficos referentes a avaliação funcional, principais patologias encontradas em pavimentos flexíveis, avaliação de segurança em pavimentos aeroportuários, levantamento do índice de irregularidade internacional (IRI), principais índices de avaliação funcional e sistemas de gerenciamento de pavimentos utilizados no Brasil e em alguns países, e um estudo de caso para definição de parâmetros importantes adaptados à realidade brasileira para a criação de metas de manutenção. Para o estudo de campo foram realizados levantamentos nas pistas de pouso e decolagem de quatro aeroportos regionais no Estado de São Paulo. Os levantamentos realizados foram defeitos/patologias existentes na pista, irregularidade longitudinal e bacias transversais da pista. Para o levantamento da irregularidade longitudinal e bacias transversais na pista foi utilizado o equipamento Planógrafo AX 02, enquanto os defeitos foram levantados de acordo com a regulamentação americana do FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) para determinação do PCI (Pavement Condition Index) de acordo com o procedimento da norma ASTM D5340 (2012). / This paper presents a study focused on the implementation of functional maintenance targets for airport runway flexible pavement. Airports besides performing its function specified by the Brazilian National Civil Aviation Agency (ANAC), should also preserve existing pavements in good condition and promote safety and comfort to the passenger. Although there are already criteria to define pavement maintenance strategies for runways in other countries, it is recommended for the Brazilian airports to consider other parameters related to pathologies and transversal basins on the pavement surface. This research consists on establishing an effective maintenance for functional evaluation of flexible runway pavement. Once established the purpose a literature review aiming to study the functional evaluation in flexible pavements was performed. The references also include main distresses found in asphalt pavements, safety evaluation on runway pavements, the International Roughness Index (IRI), the main functional evaluation indexes and Airport Pavement Management Systems in Brazil and in worldwide, and a case study to define important maintenance parameters adapted to Brazilian runways. The survey in loco was carried out to collect information about the runway state of four regional airports. This inspection detected irregularities along the runway and failure in the cross-section profile by the Planograph AX 02 equipament, and also revealed pavement defects pathologies according to the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) regulations to determine the Pavement Condition Index (PCI), ASTM D5340 (2012).

During the last decade, the number of runway incursions at airports in the United States and worldwide has increased. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has developed the Runway Safety Program (RSP) to address these concerns and improve the safety of the National Airspace System (NAS). The purpose of this study was to determine whether the FAA 2009-2011 RSP has effectively reduced runway incursions at the nation's 5 busiest airports using data from 3 years before and 3 years after the RSP. A comparison group interrupted time-series design was used to determine the impact of the RSP. A public policy framework served as the theoretical foundation for this study. Data were collected from the FAA on runway incursions occurring from October 1, 2005 through September 30, 2014 and assessed for appropriate inclusion criteria. An analysis of the dataset using chi-square and Mann-Whitney U tests established that though the RSP has made progress, it has not effectively reduced runway incursions at the nation's 5 busiest airports. The RSP has decreased the number of runway incursion caused by air traffic controllers, reduced the overall severity of runway incursions, as well as positively influenced when, during the phase of flight, most runway incursions happen. An increase in pilot deviations suggests finding better ways to reduce these type of runway incursions is critical, especially with the forecasted growth in air travel. Continued deployment of runway safety technology is also important. With increased aviation safety, positive social change will occur through enhanced public safety while traveling, safer working environments at airports, as well as economic stimulus resulting from increased aviation activities benefiting individuals and developing countries throughout the world.

The introduction of plus-size models in high fashion has been a highly discussed topic in recent years. Plus-size female models are slowly breaking their way through the boundaries of fashion’s standard for thinness and this can be observed through their visibility within major runway shows. However, this change does not seem as prevalent within high fashion menswear shows since plus-size men are barely being included. Nevertheless, plus-size men exist and fashion can no longer choose to ignore them as they deserve to be acknowledged and represented. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is to include the plus-size male body within the scope of fashion. A multimethodological approach, combining critical visual analysis, semi-structured interviews and critical theory by Susan Bordo, Michel Foucault and Pierre Bourdieu are used as a way to examine to what extent plus-size men are being included in high fashion, and how this influences the field of fashion. The outcome of the visual analysis reveals that there is still a large lack of inclusion of plus-size men. Furthermore, the field analysis reveals that there is an imbalance within the current field of fashion, and this is one of the main reasons why there is a lack of inclusion of plus-size men within (high) fashion.

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