The 1980 United Nations Convention on the International Sale of Goods, concluded under the auspices of UNCITRAL, creates a comprehensive statutory legal framework for international sales. Through the express incorporation of the principle of freedom of contract, the convention contains rules which the parties may freely adapt to the particular circumstances of their transaction, by filling any gaps that may arise with trade usages and other practices. In addition, the convention recognises the binding force of international trade usages in certain circumstances, in that it binds parties to usages which are so widely known and have acquired such regularity of observance in international trade as to justify an expectation that they will be observed in the particular transaction. Such acknowledgment of the changing patterns and norms of behaviour which characterise international trade law allows the CISG to be categorised as a major component of the modern lex mercatoria. / Constitutional International & Indigenous Law / LL.M.

Thesis (LLD (Mercantile Law))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: International sales contracts have very specific needs that stem from the multiplicity of legal systems which apply to such contracts. In addition to harmonised law, mercantile custom is able to address many of these needs. Mercantile custom represents usages which are clear, certain and efficient and are expected to be known and applied by merchants in a particular trade or region. To this extent mercantile custom fulfils an automatic harmonisation function. However, where a custom does not enjoy uniform application across all branches of trade, the harmonisation function of mercantile custom is limited, as is the case with trade terms. Trade terms reflect mercantile customs and usages which developed over a long time in order to simplify the trade in goods that are transported from one place to the other. They regulate the delivery obligations of the seller and buyer as well as associated obligations such as the passing of risk. Trade terms negate the need for elaborate contract clauses and appear in abbreviated form in contracts of sale. Although they provide a uniform expression of mercantile custom in a particular location or trade, the understanding of trade terms tend to differ from country to country, region to region or from one branch of trade to the next. The ICC INCOTERMS is an effort to standardise trade term definitions at the hand of the most consistent mercantile customs and practices. The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency of INCOTERMS as a form of standardisation in international sales law. For purposes of the investigation the focus is limited to the passing of risk. Although national laws usually have a default risk regime in place, merchants still prefer to regulate risk by means of trade terms. This study will investigate the legal position in the case of FOB, CIF and DDU terms. An analysis of the risk regimes of a few selected national systems will show that each has their own understanding of these trade terms. The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) does not refer to trade terms, but many commentators have concluded that the CISG risk rule is consistent with INCOTERMS. The study will discuss this in more detail. To determine the efficiency of INCOTERMS as a form of standardisation in international sales law, the study examines their characteristics, legal nature as well as their limited scope of regulation. Specific emphasis is placed on the interplay between the CISG and INCOTERMS and the possibility of some form of interaction and collaboration between the two instruments. It is concluded that collaboration between INCOTERMS and the CISG adds value to the international law of sales by increasing the efficiency of an international business transaction and thereby facilitating international trade. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Internasionale koopkontrakte het spesifieke behoeftes wat voortspruit uit die veelvoudigheid van regstelsels van toepassing op so ‘n kontrak. Baie van hierdie behoeftes kan aangespreek word deur geharmoniseerde regsreëls in samehang met handelsgewoontes en –gebruike. Handelsgewoontes verteenwoordig duidelike, seker en effektiewe gebruike. Daar word dus van handelaars wat in ‘n bepaalde bedryf of streek handel dryf, verwag om van hierdie gebruike kennis te neem en hulle toe te pas. In hierdie konteks vervul handelsgebruike ‘n outomatiese harmoniseringsfunksie. Waar ‘n gebruik nie eenvormig toegepas word oor alle bedrywe heen nie, is die harmoniseringsfunksie van handelsgebruike egter beperk. Handelsterme bied ‘n tipiese voorbeeld hiervan. Handelsterme verteenwoordig bepaalde handelsgewoontes en –gebruike wat oor ‘n geruime tyd ontwikkel het ten einde handel in goedere wat van een plek na die ander vervoer word, te vergemaklik. Hulle reguleer die leweringsverpligtinge van die verkoper en koper asook ander verpligtinge wat met lewering verband hou, soos byvoorbeeld die oorgang van risiko. Handelsterme doen weg met lang en omslagtige kontraksbedinge aangesien hulle in die vorm van afkortings in die kontrak figureer. Alhoewel handelsterme ‘n uniforme uitdrukking van gebruike in ‘n bepaalde gebied of bedryf verteenwoordig, is dit egter so dat die inhoud van handelsterme van land tot land, streek tot streek of van een tipe bedryf tot die ander verskil. INCOTERMS is ‘n poging om die inhoud van handelsterme te standaardiseer aan die hand van die mees eenvormige handelsgewoontes en –gebruike. Die doel van hierdie studie is om die effektiwiteit van INCOTERMS as ‘n vorm van standaardisering in die internasionale koopreg te ondersoek. Vir doeleindes van die ondersoek word die fokus beperk tot die oorgang van risiko. Al het nasionale regstelsels gewoonlik ‘n verstek risiko-reël in plek, verkies handelaars steeds om risiko by wyse van handelsterme te reguleer. Die studie ondersoek die regsposisie in die geval van FOB-, CIF-, en DDU-terme. ‘n Analise van risiko-regulering in ‘n aantal nasionale sisteme toon dat elk hul eie betekenis heg aan die inhoud van hierdie terme. Alhoewel die Weense Koopkonvensie geensins na handelsterme verwys nie, voer verskeie kommentatore aan dat die Konvensie se risiko-bestel verenigbaar is met dié van INCOTERMS en sal hierdie aspek gevolglik in meer besonderhede in die studie aangespreek word. Ten einde die effektiwiteit van INCOTERMS te bepaal, word daar ondersoek ingestel na hulle kenmerke, regsaard en beperkte aanwendingsgebied. Spesiale klem word gelê op die wisselwerking tussen die Weense Koopkonvensie en INCOTERMS asook die moontlikheid van interaksie en samewerking tussen die twee instrumente. Die gevolgtrekking is dat interaksie tussen die Koopkonvensie en INCOTERMS waarde toevoeg tot die internasionale koopreg deur die effektiwiteit van die internasionale besigheidstransaksie te verhoog en gevolglik internasionale handel te bevorder. / Harry Crossley Fund / NRF Thuthuka Fund

This thesis attempts to critically and comparatively analyse the issues relating to the passing of property and risk under the United Nations Convention on the Contract for International Sale of Goods (CISG) and English Law (SGA). The passing of property and risk plays a central role in the area of international legislation in relation to sales contracts. These elements can be the most significant components in contracts of sale between parties, whether in the international or domestic field. The reason is founded on their legal nature and the close relationship between them. The passing of property and risk has been a central issue for practitioners, judges and lawyers dating back to the Roman period and several ideas have been proposed to resolve it. Where the situation is different for contracts of sale in relation to the passing of property and risk, whether in the domestic or international field, it still creates many unresolved problems, because of ongoing changes in the field of modern commerce, which may contribute to unfair implications between the parties. It has been observed in this thesis that both English law and the CISG adopt the party autonomy principle, where the intention of the parties - whether in relation to the passing of property or risk - is the basic rule. However, the difference lies in the default rules. While English law involves default substitutional rules, which apply in cases where there is an absence of an expressed or implied indication regarding the intention between the parties, the CISG lacks such default rules regarding the transfer of property, which could be viewed as its main weakness, although the CISG does involve such provisions with respect to the transfer of risk. This thesis willdiscusses, the legal nature of the rules in relation to the passing of property and risk, and the role of the party autonomy principle, and the impacts and legal difficulties that might arise through the application of these rules, whether they are default rules or based on the party autonomy principle. It will also examine the legal gaps and weaknesses of both legal systems in an attempt to identify such legal difficulties and to find appropriate solutions and remedies.

The 1980 United Nations Convention on the International Sale of Goods, concluded under the auspices of UNCITRAL, creates a comprehensive statutory legal framework for international sales. Through the express incorporation of the principle of freedom of contract, the convention contains rules which the parties may freely adapt to the particular circumstances of their transaction, by filling any gaps that may arise with trade usages and other practices. In addition, the convention recognises the binding force of international trade usages in certain circumstances, in that it binds parties to usages which are so widely known and have acquired such regularity of observance in international trade as to justify an expectation that they will be observed in the particular transaction. Such acknowledgment of the changing patterns and norms of behaviour which characterise international trade law allows the CISG to be categorised as a major component of the modern lex mercatoria. / Constitutional International and Indigenous Law / LL.M.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:32:45Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-06-28Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:43:54Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 rocha_cf_dr_sjrp_parcial.pdf: 126921 bytes, checksum: 7b40814cfbe459132ef100f7a0ade424 (MD5) Bitstreams deleted on 2015-05-28T14:25:14Z: rocha_cf_dr_sjrp_parcial.pdf,. Added 1 bitstream(s) on 2015-05-28T14:26:16Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000623109_20150628.pdf: 114405 bytes, checksum: 414e8d916339ca8447ccb953e06fb971 (MD5) Bitstreams deleted on 2015-06-30T11:22:13Z: 000623109_20150628.pdf,. Added 1 bitstream(s) on 2015-06-30T11:23:07Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 000623109.pdf: 1171845 bytes, checksum: e3d39a95bd45dbc5ac70bd6f8d37ad91 (MD5) / A presente tese analisa características da tradução juramentada na direção inglês português, no que concerne a semelhanças e diferenças no uso de termos simples, expressões fixas e semifixas mais frequentes encontrados em contratos de compra e venda e títulos executivos. A pesquisa tem como fundamentação teórica os Estudos da Tradução Baseados em Corpus, a Linguística de Corpus e ainda recorre, em parte, ao arcabouço teórico-metodológico da Terminologia. Os corpora de estudo de textos traduzidos no modo juramentado para o português contêm: 34 contratos de compra e venda e 165 títulos executivos (24 conhecimentos de embarque, 103 faturas comerciais e 38 notas promissórias). Os contratos foram traduzidos por dois tradutores juramentados e os títulos executivos, por três tradutores. Para cada subtipo de documento dos corpora de estudo, compilamos dois corpora comparáveis de textos originalmente escritos em português e inglês. A pesquisa conta com o auxílio do programa de computador WordSmith Tools versão 4.0 para o levantamento dos dados, tendo sido utilizadas as ferramentas WordList, KeyWord e Concord. A partir dos dados gerados, criamos quatro glossários de termos simples e de expressões fixas e semifixas mais frequentes, presentes nos corpora de estudo. Desse modo, foram selecionados 90 termos simples e 70 expressões fixas ou semifixas dos contratos de compra e venda. Para criação dos glossários referentes a títulos executivos, escolhemos 137 ternos simples e 95 expressões fixas e semifixas. Os termos simples levantados constam dos dicionários do corpus de apoio; no entanto, não se encontra registrada, na maioria das obras, qualquer referência quanto ao uso. Por sua vez, a maior parte das expressões fixas e semifixas não se encontra dicionarizada. Com a utilização dos corpora comparáveis em inglês, foi possível localizar... / The present dissertation studies features of sworn translation in the English Portuguese direction. Differences and similarities observed in the use of the most frequent simple terms, fixed and semi-fixed expressions present in sales contracts and executable instruments (negotiable or enforceable instruments) were analyzed. This study has its theoretical basis on Corpus-Based Translation Studies, on Corpus Linguistics and applies some theoretical concepts from Terminology. The corpora of study comprise 34 sales contracts and 165 enforceable instruments (24 bills of lading, 103 commercial invoices and 38 promissory notes). The contracts had been translated by two sworn translators and the executable instruments by three sworn translators. For each subtype of document mentioned, two comparable corpora comprised of texts originally written in Portuguese and in English were constructed. Three tools of the software WordSmith Tool 4.0 were employed in order to extract data: WordList, KeyWord and Concord. We drew up four glossaries of simple terms, fixed or semi-fixed expressions based on the data generated by the software. 90 simple terms and 70 fixed or semi-fixed expressions were then selected from the contracts. In order to create the glossary of executable instruments, we chose 137 simple terms and 95 fixed or semi-fixed expressions. Although the simple terms are present in the dictionaries of our support corpus, there is no information concerning their use. Regarding fixed or semi-fixed expressions, most of them were not found in these dictionaries. The English comparable corpora showed approximately 70% of fixed or semi-fixed expressions. In relation to the analysis, we noticed a tendency to employ literal translations, which reveals a preference for language closer to the style of sales contracts and executable instruments originally written in English... (Complete abstract click electronic access below)

Orientador: Diva Cardoso de Camargo / Banca: Francis Henrik Aubert / Banca: Waldenor Barros Moraes Filho / Banca: Claudia Maria Ceneviva Nigro / Banca: Eli Nazareth Bechara / Resumo: A presente tese analisa características da tradução juramentada na direção inglês português, no que concerne a semelhanças e diferenças no uso de termos simples, expressões fixas e semifixas mais frequentes encontrados em contratos de compra e venda e títulos executivos. A pesquisa tem como fundamentação teórica os Estudos da Tradução Baseados em Corpus, a Linguística de Corpus e ainda recorre, em parte, ao arcabouço teórico-metodológico da Terminologia. Os corpora de estudo de textos traduzidos no modo juramentado para o português contêm: 34 contratos de compra e venda e 165 títulos executivos (24 conhecimentos de embarque, 103 faturas comerciais e 38 notas promissórias). Os contratos foram traduzidos por dois tradutores juramentados e os títulos executivos, por três tradutores. Para cada subtipo de documento dos corpora de estudo, compilamos dois corpora comparáveis de textos originalmente escritos em português e inglês. A pesquisa conta com o auxílio do programa de computador WordSmith Tools versão 4.0 para o levantamento dos dados, tendo sido utilizadas as ferramentas WordList, KeyWord e Concord. A partir dos dados gerados, criamos quatro glossários de termos simples e de expressões fixas e semifixas mais frequentes, presentes nos corpora de estudo. Desse modo, foram selecionados 90 termos simples e 70 expressões fixas ou semifixas dos contratos de compra e venda. Para criação dos glossários referentes a títulos executivos, escolhemos 137 ternos simples e 95 expressões fixas e semifixas. Os termos simples levantados constam dos dicionários do corpus de apoio; no entanto, não se encontra registrada, na maioria das obras, qualquer referência quanto ao uso. Por sua vez, a maior parte das expressões fixas e semifixas não se encontra dicionarizada. Com a utilização dos corpora comparáveis em inglês, foi possível localizar... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: The present dissertation studies features of sworn translation in the English Portuguese direction. Differences and similarities observed in the use of the most frequent simple terms, fixed and semi-fixed expressions present in sales contracts and executable instruments (negotiable or enforceable instruments) were analyzed. This study has its theoretical basis on Corpus-Based Translation Studies, on Corpus Linguistics and applies some theoretical concepts from Terminology. The corpora of study comprise 34 sales contracts and 165 enforceable instruments (24 bills of lading, 103 commercial invoices and 38 promissory notes). The contracts had been translated by two sworn translators and the executable instruments by three sworn translators. For each subtype of document mentioned, two comparable corpora comprised of texts originally written in Portuguese and in English were constructed. Three tools of the software WordSmith Tool 4.0 were employed in order to extract data: WordList, KeyWord and Concord. We drew up four glossaries of simple terms, fixed or semi-fixed expressions based on the data generated by the software. 90 simple terms and 70 fixed or semi-fixed expressions were then selected from the contracts. In order to create the glossary of executable instruments, we chose 137 simple terms and 95 fixed or semi-fixed expressions. Although the simple terms are present in the dictionaries of our support corpus, there is no information concerning their use. Regarding fixed or semi-fixed expressions, most of them were not found in these dictionaries. The English comparable corpora showed approximately 70% of fixed or semi-fixed expressions. In relation to the analysis, we noticed a tendency to employ literal translations, which reveals a preference for language closer to the style of sales contracts and executable instruments originally written in English... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

This thesis carried out an analysis of various aspects of liability for defects in the contract of sale under the New Civil Code. The text discusses general liability and displays special treatment contracts. The thesis includes a division of defects, deals with a liability for defects focused on the sale contract and a contract for work. Further specification party beneficiary rights of defective performance and other rights to the settlement of total loss. There are given rights principles and procedures of the defects of the complaint procedure. The text contains rules on liability for defects in international trade. The thesis is the comparison of new and old legislation, the most significant changes and an overview of the consequences of changes to the consumer.

To regulate and facilitate are the main functions of legal rules. These purposes are achieved by a harmonised legal system by which the law becomes identical in numerous jurisdictions. The process to unify the law of sale internationally started in the 1920s and culminated, in 1988, in the implementation of the CISG. This Convention intends to provide clarity for most international sales transactions by regulating the formation of contracts, and the rights and obligations of the seller and the buyer resulting from the contract. The CISG has these days enjoyed much ratification and influenced a number of legislation reforms worldwide. Despite the role it played during the drafting process of the CISG, the DRC has not yet ratified it. Instead, the country continued to rely, until recently, on colonial legislations which had become out-dated, and inadequate to meet modern international sales contracts requirements. The situation appears to have been improved a year ago as the effect of the adoption of OHADA law whose Commercial Act is largely inspired by the CISG. Because the introduction of OHADA law in the DRC is very recent, this study intends to assess the current state of Congolese sales law by comparing it with the CISG and South African law, which is non-CISG but modernised. The comparative study aims at establishing whether current Congolese law, as amended by OHADA law, is sufficient or has shortcomings; if it has some, it aims to identify those shortcomings, and make suggestions for their improvements. After discussion, it has been discovered that the ratification of OHADA law has significantly improved Congolese domestic sales law. Given that there remain certain unresolved shortcomings in Congolese international sales law, however, the study ends by a proposal for the accession of the DRC to the CISG in order to fill them. / Mercantile Law / LLD

To regulate and facilitate are the main functions of legal rules. These purposes are achieved by a harmonised legal system by which the law becomes identical in numerous jurisdictions. The process to unify the law of sale internationally started in the 1920s and culminated, in 1988, in the implementation of the CISG. This Convention intends to provide clarity for most international sales transactions by regulating the formation of contracts, and the rights and obligations of the seller and the buyer resulting from the contract. The CISG has these days enjoyed much ratification and influenced a number of legislation reforms worldwide. Despite the role it played during the drafting process of the CISG, the DRC has not yet ratified it. Instead, the country continued to rely, until recently, on colonial legislations which had become out-dated, and inadequate to meet modern international sales contracts requirements. The situation appears to have been improved a year ago as the effect of the adoption of OHADA law whose Commercial Act is largely inspired by the CISG. Because the introduction of OHADA law in the DRC is very recent, this study intends to assess the current state of Congolese sales law by comparing it with the CISG and South African law, which is non-CISG but modernised. The comparative study aims at establishing whether current Congolese law, as amended by OHADA law, is sufficient or has shortcomings; if it has some, it aims to identify those shortcomings, and make suggestions for their improvements. After discussion, it has been discovered that the ratification of OHADA law has significantly improved Congolese domestic sales law. Given that there remain certain unresolved shortcomings in Congolese international sales law, however, the study ends by a proposal for the accession of the DRC to the CISG in order to fill them. / Mercantile Law / LL. D.

The legal nature of the bill of lading as a negotiable document of title has allowed it to provide the basis of a system in which bankers provide credit for the financing of international sales contracts on the strength of the security afforded by the goods represented in the bill. The sea waybill has appeared as a substitute for the bill of lading and, despite its nature as a nonnegotiable document, it can be employed in a manner which allows it to provide collateral security to banks. Multimodal transport documents which may be issued in negotiable or non-negotiable form assume the same legal role as the bill oflading or sea waybill respectively. The inclusion of specific articles in the 1993 Revision of the UCP relating to non-negotiable sea waybills and multimodal transport documents affirms their acceptability to banks financing international sales contracts under documentary letters of credit. / Law / LL.M.