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University research buildings are significant energy consumers in the United States. There is therefore a need to reduce energy use on the nation's campuses, not only cutting their carbon footprints but also saving money. Universities' efforts to reduce energy use include updating older facilities, implementing renewable energy systems, and encouraging energy saving behavior. This study evaluated the differential effects of two forms of feedback on electricity consumption in two groups of research buildings on a college campus to determine whether providing feedback to energy users has an impact on energy conservation behavior. A control group of buildings received no feedback regarding their electricity use. In the first study group of buildings, occupants received information about their electricity consumption with some electricity saving tips, distributed via email. The same procedure was followed with building occupants in the second study group, who received additional information showing their electricity consumption performance in comparison to other buildings within the study group. The baseline reading was conducted a week before the experiment began in August, 2012. Over the course of the five week study, the daily adjusted average reductions in electricity usage compared to the control group were less than 1 percent for both study groups, with study group 1 achieving an average reduction of 0.2 percent and study group 2 an average reduction of 0.8 percent. Although the reduction observed for study group 2 was 4 times greater than that for study group 1, the saving was not continuous over the study period. Accordingly, the result was deemed to be not statistically significant and the effectiveness of comparative energy use feedback in university research buildings was not supported. However, even small savings in the energy used in university research buildings can be very important in terms of the total amount of energy saved because research buildings use significantly more energy than other buildings on campus such as academic buildings and residence blocks. This study concludes with a consideration of potentially fruitful directions for future research into developing new ways to reduce the energy consumption on university campuses. / Master of Science

Demand for potable water and energy is increasing with growing populations and economies and many fear that scarcity of such resources will become a significant worldwide problem in the future. As such, promoting water and energy conservation in residential building environments has become an important focal area for research. Providing feedback of water or energy consumption to residential building occupants has been demonstrated to be effective in promoting water and energy conservation separately. However, although water and energy are inexorably connected, we lack research that investigates the bridge between water and energy in the representation of feedback to promote water conservation. In this paper, we describe a study that was designed to investigate the impact of two different representations of water consumption feedback on water conservation. Water consumption was represented to consumers in one of two different ways: 1) gallons and 2) gallons along with the estimated embodied energy of water consumption. The study was conducted in 18 residential halls at Virginia Tech and lasted approximately six weeks. The outcome of the study suggests that representing water consumption in terms of gallons together with the embodied energy associated with water consumption can lead to a statistically significant reduction in water conservation while representing water consumption only in terms of gallons may not. This has significant implications for future water feedback designed to promote water conservation and the study indicates that non-monetary approach can be taken. / Master of Science

Retirement saving research frequently has investigated the differences between working men and working women and primarily focused on the near retirement and retirement years. There is limited research targeting young to old working-age women including those who do not work for pay and are unemployed. The purpose of this study was to examine what factors affect non-retired working-age (25 years and older) women's retirement saving behaviors, retirement savings, and retirement income satisfaction. To implement the study, a research framework was developed based on Deacon and Firebaugh's Family Resource Management Model. The research framework for this study consisted of three major sections: (a) input (demographics, saving motives, retirement saving involvement level, retirement information seeking, current financial assets and debts, and future expectations), (b) throughput (retirement saving behaviors such as calculating needed retirement savings, being a retirement saver, starting saving for retirement age, and being a regular retirement saver), and (c) output (the objective retirement savings and the subjective retirement income satisfaction). An online survey instrument was developed to obtain data for the study. Two pilot tests were conducted to confirm the validity and reliability of the instrument. Data for this study were collected from a national population between May 25, 2012 and May 30, 2012 with 591 valid responses. Several statistical methods were employed: descriptive statistics, one-way between-groups analysis of variance (ANOVA), direct logistic regression, and standard multiple regression. From the results of the study, only about one-third of the women (31.8%) reported they expect to get the full amount of Social Security retirement income that today's retirees get. However, around 60% of the women only save less than $25,000 or none in employer-provided retirement accounts or in personal investments and savings. There is an un-addressed gap between the cognition of the need to save for retirement and real saving action. A regular retirement saver is more likely to save more in employer-provided retirement accounts and to feel more satisfied with that retirement income. Yet, regular retirement savers have less savings in personal investments and savings, possibly because they believe their work investments will be sufficient or some women may make direct deposits to meet the annual limits of retirement plans. Other researchers have not reported this relationship. Those women who are more cognitively involved with saving for retirement are more likely to calculate needed retirement savings and to be a retirement saver, but they are less satisfied with retirement income from Social Security and from personal investments and savings. Satisfaction level is subjective; thus, those who expect to own more types of assets in retirement may have a higher satisfaction level with the expected income from both employer-sponsored retirement accounts and personal investments and savings. Generally, greater satisfaction with expected retirement income is associated with higher accumulation in retirement savings, and the female savers have much more retirement savings than non-savers. However, there is no difference in the retirement income satisfaction of savers and non-savers. These findings have implications for financial educators, counselors and advisors, researchers, employers, and policy makers. There are recommendations for women and future research. / Ph. D.

Industry is one of the major energy consumers resulting in negative environmental impacts in the world. In this context, industrial energy management becomes critically important when improving industrial energy savings. Emphasized is the careful energy treatment in the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations. The dominance of a technical approach in current research of industrial energy management suppresses significant potentials of human behavior for energy efficiency. Societal problems such as the energy efficiency gap and the rebound effect may be tackled by involving energysaving behavior in interventions. This thesis aims to explain characteristics of energy-saving behavior in the industrial settings of an automobile producer in Central Europe. The manufacturer utilizes an energy management program, named QUEST, which is facilitated by the external advisor HE Consulting s.r.o. Questions of particular interest are therefore related to perceived organizational readiness to engage in energy-saving behavior. Data gathering include a structured-questionnaire of perceptions on energy savings at the plants with managers of the automobile producer. Additionally, a semi-structured interview with the CEO of HE Consulting s.r.o. offers a more in-depth view on practical implications of energysaving behavior. As a base for data collection serves a psychological perspective of perceptional theories. Strongly related is that approach to the change management discipline. Results of the study show that, indeed, managers in the QUEST program tend to perceive organizational readiness on energy savings re latively more positive than managers outside the program. Resistance to change can be marginally observed in lower management levels. However, the managers emphasize a lack of time to engage in energy savings. Indicators of perceived organizational readiness on energy savings alone do not show the actual energy-saving behavior. This means that this thesis does not directly observe energy-saving behavior. Nevertheless, the impact of such indicators on the actual performed energy-saving behavior may be seen in combination with quantified energy savings. All findings can only be interpreted in the frame of this study.

Doctor of Philosophy / School of Family Studies and Human Services / Kristy L. Pederson-Archuleta / Martin Seay / This dissertation employed a psychological framework to investigate the saving behavior of older pre-retirees through three essays using data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS). Understanding the connection between psychological characteristics and saving behavior is critical as this population attempts to bridge the retirement saving gap. Of these characteristics, financial self-efficacy beliefs (FSE) are theoretically vital to saving behavior. With the FSE beliefs of older adults weak and vulnerable to decline, more research is needed to understand how FSE beliefs affect saving behavior and how FSE beliefs can be supported. Essay one investigated the psychological characteristics associated with FSE beliefs according to the Meta-Theoretic Model of Motivation and Personality (3M). Using a sample of 2,070 pre-retirees aged 50 to 70, essay one revealed that FSE beliefs can be supported through the frequent experience of positive affect, reduced negative affect, a stronger perception of mastery, and a higher task orientation, holding all else constant. Essay two investigated the relationship between FSE beliefs and saving behavior (i.e., change in net worth from 2008 to 2012) through the Social Cognitive Theory of Self-Regulation. Using a sample of 844 pre-retirees aged 50 to 70, results revealed that FSE beliefs are significantly and positively related to saving behavior, after controlling for the financial ability and motivation to save. Essay three employed a structural equation model to investigate an integrated psychological approach to saving behavior based upon the 3M. Using a sample of 1,370 pre-retired and partially retired adults aged 50 to 70, essay three revealed that FSE beliefs facilitated the connection between elemental traits (i.e., openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism), compound traits (i.e., positive affect, negative affect, mastery, and task orientation), and saving behavior. Overall, significant evidence was generated supporting a psychological approach to the saving behavior of older pre-retirees. Financial and mental health professionals can utilize this framework to provide holistic retirement saving advice that acknowledges the psychological roots of behavior. Moreover, results established empirical support for the role FSE beliefs play in executing saving behavior. Lastly, results supported the importance of domain specific measurement for self-efficacy beliefs in future research.

While the saving environment has become more complex in recent years, so has the demand for individual activity. Important impetuses include financial deregulation, globalization, technological change, and reformed pension systems. Financial institutions can provide financial advisory services to help their customers to obtain positive net benefits by avoiding mistakes and using economies of scale, and they can also attract and maintain their customers by creating strong relationships. Earlier studies show that the incentive structure often leads to advice that is not to the benefit of the customers. In addition, not all customers seek and receive advisory services. The objective of this study is to increase our understanding of the relationship between the bank advisor – customer relation and the bank customer’s saving behavior. The scope of the study is to analyze relevant theories and develop a model that includes financial advisors as a mediator of saving behavior, and to understand the relational attributes that can affect saving behavior. Also, the characteristics of customers with a relational versus a transactional exchange form with the bank are explored. Given the problems of establishing causality, the scope is also to understand the impact of the relationship and, in particular, face-to-face advisory meetings on saving behavior. The analysis is mainly carried out with the help of customer data – both objective bank register data and subjective survey data – while the advisor characteristics are to a lesser extent part of the data material. Five studies are carried out using various methodologies, i.e., theoretical review and model development, probit and multinomial logistic regressions, difference-in-difference regression, and structural equation modelling. In addition, a case study is made analyzing dyads of customers and advisors in order to explore theoretical assumptions. Economics and relationship marketing are used to explain saving behavior with transactional, interimistic relational, and enduring relational exchange forms (Paper 1). Several major findings emerge in the quantitative analysis: First, the attributes are longer and stronger, the more relational the exchange form is (Paper 2). A second finding is that relational attributes also surface in transactional exchange, a finding that requires further research to be understood in more detail (Paper 2). Third, among relational attributes, duration and context have the largest total effects on saving behavior, while trust is a mediating variable (Paper 5). Fourth, not only demographic and socioeconomic factors can predict whether customers use the relational exchange form; psychological factors, such as saving motives and risk attitudes, are also predictors. Results are clearly different for women and men (Paper 3). Finally, financial advisory meetings are found to increase saving volumes and saving products held in stock. The largest effects are found for young customers with low wealth and low profitability to the bank, i.e., customers who initially have low activity levels and thus create a large potential (Paper 4). Limitations include endogeneity problems in general, and selection bias in particular, making it difficult to establish causality, and internal and external validity. Future research should focus on data management, especially building time series with enhanced methods to adjust for selection bias. In addition, studies to better understand the transactional exchange form are needed, as well as studies that deepen the definition of relational exchange, not least when alternative channels to face-to-face meetings include mobile banking and internet banking, and the digitalization of  the social know-how of financial advisors. Managerial implications include understanding the relational attributes that affect saving behavior, such as context, duration, and trust. Also useful to know are the factors that can help to predict the probability of a customer’s having a transactional or relational exchange form, i.e., including demographics, socioeconomics, psychology, and gender, to see how channels and customers can be better matched. Policy implications include using the model in this study to match relational attributes to the degree of financial literacy, since the risk of misselling is particularly large for relational-oriented customers with low financial literacy. / Samtidigt som sparandet har blivit mer komplext under senare år, har behovet av individens egen aktivitet ökat. Viktiga drivkrafter för denna utveckling har varit finansiell avreglering, globalisering, teknisk utveckling och reformerade pensionssystem. Finansiella institutioner kan erbjuda finansiell rådgivning för att hjälpa kunderna erhålla positiv nettonytta genom att de då kan undvika att göra vanliga misstag och kan få skalfördelar med ökad tillgång till information. Genom att skapa starka kundrelationer kan dessa institutioner också använda rådgivningen för att attrahera och behålla kunder. Tidigare studier visar att incitamentsstrukturen ofta leder till att rådgivningen missgynnar kunderna. Det är heller inte alla kunder som söker och får tillgång till rådgivning. Syftet med denna avhandling är att öka förståelsen för sambanden mellan bankkundens sparbeteende, finansiell rådgivning och relationen mellan bankrådgivaren och kunden. I avhandlingens omfång ingår att analysera teorier, utveckla en modell som inkluderar finansiella rådgivare som intermediärer till sparbeteende samt förstå de relationsattribut som kan påverka sparbeteendet. Dessutom görs jämförelser mellan kunders karaktäristika utifrån deras utbytesform. Med hänsyn tagen till svårigheterna att fastställa kausalitet ingår även att förstå hur relationen i allmänhet, och rådgivningsmöten i synnerhet, påverkar sparbeteendet. Analyser görs med hjälp av kunddata, både objektiva registerdata och subjektiva enkätdata, medan karaktäristiska för rådgivarna i mindre utsträckning finns med i datamaterialet. Fem studier utförs som använder olika metoder, såsom teoretisk genomgång och modellutveckling, probit- och multinomiala logitregressioner, ”difference-in-difference” regressioner samt struktur-ekvationsmodellering. Inledningsvis gjordes också en fallstudie som analyserade dyader av bank-kunder och rådgivare för att undersöka teoretiska antaganden. Det framkommer att national-ekonomi och relationsmarknadsföring tillsammans kan användas för att förklara sparbeteende med hjälp av tre utbytesformer (transaktion, interimistisk relation, djupgående relation) (Art. 1). Ju mer relation utbytesformen innehåller, desto längre och större är relationsattributen (Art. 2). Relations-attribut finns också representerade i transaktionsutbytet, ett resultat som kräver ytterligare forskning (Art. 2). För det tredje framkommer att bland relationsattributen är duration och kontext viktigast för att förklara sparbeteendet, följt av förtroende som är en intermediär variabel (Art. 5). För det fjärde framkommer att förutom demografiska och socioekonomiska faktorer är psykologiska faktorer, såsom sparmotiv och riskpreferenser, prediktorer för utbytesform. Resultaten är markant olika för män och kvinnor (Art. 3). Slutligen, givet endogenitetsproblem, syntes finansiella rådgivningsmöten öka sparvolymer och antal produkter som bankkunder använder. De största effekterna observeras för unga, personer med låga förmögenheter samt personer med låg lönsamhet för banken, d v s kunder som initialt har en låg aktivitetsnivå men som utgör en potential (Art. 4). Begränsningar i studierna handlar om endogenitetsproblemen i allmänhet, och selektions-svårigheter i synnerhet, vilka gör det svårt att fastställa kausalitet och vilka begränsar extern och intern validitet. Framtida forskning bör därför fokusera på datahanteringen genom att bygga upp tidsseriedata och utveckla metoder som justerar för selektionsproblem. Dessutom behöver transaktionsattributen studeras. Samtidigt är studier som fördjupar förståelsen kring relationen viktiga, inte minst som alternativa kanaler till mänskliga rådgivningsmöten – såsom mobilbank och internetbank – snabbt vinner gehör i bankerna och bland kunderna.     Avhandlingens implikationer för bankledningar inkluderar ett ramverk som kan användas för hur relationen och dess attribut påverkar sparbeteendet, såsom duration, kontext och förtroende. Vidare är det användbart att förstå de faktorer som predicerar sannolikheten att kunden har en relations- eller transaktionsutbytesform, och de inkluderar demografi, socioekonomiska faktorer, psykologi och genus, inte minst som behovet att bättre matcha kanaler med kunder ökar. För politiska beslutsfattare kan avhandlingens modell användas för att matcha relationsattribut till graden av finansiell förmåga, inte minst som risken för ”misselling” är särskilt stor för relationsorienterade kunder med låg finansiell läsförmåga. / <p>QC 20150327</p>

Ett aktuellt debattämne på den politiska agendan är de ökade samhällsklyftorna som till stor del beror på inkomstskillnader i den svenska befolkningen. Det har visat sig finnas svårigheter för människor att ta beslut på en allt mer komplex finansmarknad med många attribut, som ställer högre krav på människors finansiella kunskapsförmåga för att kunna hantera sin egen privatekonomi. Människor med lägre finansiell kunskapsnivå har till stor del uteslutits och detta har varit mer tydligt för samhällsgrupper med sämre sociala och ekonomiska förhållanden. Tidigare forskning har visat att personer med utländsk bakgrund är en samhällsgrupp som denna problematik berör. Genom en kvalitativ fallstudie, med en socialkonstruktivistisk ansats, i form av fokusgruppsintervjuer med personer med utländsk bakgrund, ämnar denna studie bidra med ökad förståelse för hur denna samhällsgrupp ser på och tänker kring finansiella beslut på finansmarknaden. Studiens teoretiska referensram är baserad på tidigare forskning om personer med utländsk bakgrund, kognitiv förmåga, diskriminering samt forskningsfältet ”financial literacy”. Resultatet visade på att det fanns ett behov av ”financial literacy” bland informanterna, då många ansåg att den befintliga informationen som finns på finansmarknaden var svårtolkad och sätter allt högre krav på människans kognitiva förmåga. Det framgick även att många informanter ur den valda samhällsgruppen i studien “personer med utländskbakgrund” valde att avstå från att investera på finansmarknaden på grund av den risk som är associerad med finansiella investeringar. / A current topic of debate on the political agenda are the increased social gaps, which are largely due to income differences within the Swedish population. There have been difficulties for people to make financial decisions in an increasingly complex financial market with many attributes, which places higher demands on people's financial knowledge to manage their own personal finances. People with lower financial knowledge have largely been excluded and this has been more evident for social groups with poorer social and economic conditions. Previous research has shown that people with a foreign background are a social group affected by this problem. Through a qualitative case study, with a socialconstructivist approach, based on focus group interviews with people from foreign background, this study aims to contribute to greater understanding of how this group of people views and thinks about financial decisions in the financial market. This study's theoretical frame of reference is based on past research about people with foreign backgrounds, cognitive ability, discrimination and the research field of “financial literacy”. The results showed that there was a need for financial literacy among the informants, as many considered that the existing information available in the financial market was difficult to interpret and has higher demands on humans cognitive ability. It was also found that many informants from the chosen social group in this study “people with foreign backgrounds” chose to draw back from investing in the financial market because of the risk associated with financial investments.