A síntese, que segue, visa examinar de que modo acontece o processo de formação de conceitos científicos em crianças com necessidades educacionais especiais na 1ª série do ensino fundamental. Para tanto, tomou-se como suporte conceitual os postulados da psicologia sócio-histórica de Vygotsky e seus contemporâneos Luria e Leontiev. Esses autores encerram um alinhamento teórico em relação ao desenvolvimento das funções psicológicas superiores "avançadas" - com relevo especial no que se refere aos conceitos científicos - como um processo que pressupõe constantes interações com signos e ferramentas culturais em situações específicas, como, por exemplo, o espaço escolar. Salienta-se que Vygotsky (1928) considerava os processos de escolarização, mais precisamente a inserção de crianças com necessidades especiais na escola regular, como imprescindíveis para que houvesse a apropriação instrumental que proporcionasse não apenas o manejo sociocultural, mas o constituir-se como um ser humanizado, pertencente ao gênero humano. Partindo desse ideário, precursor nos processos de integração/inclusão, a implementação da pesquisa aconteceu em uma escola de educação básica da cidade de Santa Maria/RS, mais precisamente em duas primeiras séries do ensino fundamental, junto a três crianças consideradas com necessidades educacionais especiais, com idades variando entre oito e onze anos. Os aspectos operacionais da investigação se desenrolaram através da análise qualitativa de caráter etnográfico, especificamente por de três estudos de caso, utilizando-se como instrumentos para a coleta de dados: anotações de campo, entrevistas planejadas e estruturadas, análise de documentos, que possibilitaram a elaboração de uma matriz conceitual. Os resultados obtidos estabeleceram diversos momentos desse processo formativo, os quais incorporaram características de transitividade, relatividade, apropriação dinâmica e conscientização em termos de generalização conceitual, pois estiveram imersos em um processo de formação que não tem um fim em si mesmo, mas que se encontra intimamente vinculado ao entorno sociocultural presente no universo escolar. As conclusões confirmam o caráter indispensável da escolarização como um grande propulsor na formação das funções psicológicas superiores, particularmente no que se refere aos conceitos científicos. E, ainda, ratificam a hipótese da escola regular como locus relevante, onde se evidenciam muitos dos constructos intelectuais necessários à interação cultural por parte de crianças consideradas com necessidades educacionais especiais. / The following synthesis aims for examining in which way the formation process of scientific concepts happens in children with special educational needs in the first grade of fundamental school. Postulate of socio-historical psychology of Vygostsky and his contemporaries Luria and Leontiev were used as conceptual supporting. These authors close a theoretical alignment in relation to the development of "advanced" superior psychological functions - with special attention to scientific concepts - as a process which presupposes constant interactions with cultural signs and tools in specific situations, for example, the school space. It points out that Vigotsky (1928) considered the school processes, more precisely the insertion of children with special needs in regular school, as essential so that instrumental appropriation occurred and offered not only the sociocultural handling but also the 'constitute oneself' as a humanized being, pertaining to human gender. From this idea, precursor in the integration/inclusion processes, the research implementation took place in a basic educational school in the city of Santa Maria/RS, more precisely in the two first grades of fundamental education, along with the three children considered with special educational needs, between eight and eleven years old. The operational aspects of investigation unfolded through qualitative analysis of ethnographic character, specifically through three case studies, using as instruments to data collection: notes, planned and structured interviews, analysis of documents, which permitted the elaboration of a conceptual matrix. The obtained results established several moments of this formative process, in which incorporated characteristics of transitivity, relativity, dynamic appropriation and awareness in terms of conceptual generalization since they were immersed in a formation process that do not have an end in itself, but it is intimately linked to the sociocultural spread presented in the school universe. The conclusions confirm the indispensable character of 'schooling' as a big propeller in the formation of superior functions, particularly in relation to scientific concepts. And they still ratify the hypothesis of the regular school as relevant locus where several intellectual constructions needed to cultural interaction by children considered with special educational needs were evident.

Este trabalho trata da mediação simbólica empreendida por professoras, com crianças do segundo ano1 e da quarta série2 de uma escola do Ensino Fundamental. A reflexão dessas práticas é feita à luz de pressupostos teóricos interacionistas. Foram investigadas, nas duas turmas, as formas de apresentação dos conteúdos, as tarefas cooperativas, as representações do objeto de estudo, os conhecimentos trazidos pelos alunos e a socialização do conhecimento. A pesquisa exploratória foi do tipo etnográfico com observação, entrevistas, diário de campo e o registro, num quadro de referências, de indicadores de formação de conceitos científicos, elaborados a partir dos referenciais teóricos de Vygotsky. Dos resultados obtidos, em muitas situações, as aulas observadas obedeceram a uma dinâmica de exposição oral e os conteúdos surgiram de seleção feita pelas professoras a partir de listagem combinada por classes paralelas e livros didáticos. Em outros momentos, foram desenvolvidos projetos que surgiram dos interesses demonstrados pelos alunos e trabalhados em moldes cooperativos, nos quais fizeram explorações concretas dos temas de estudo. Os resultados indicam que quando o grupo trabalhou com os projetos, os resultados foram melhor formalizados em função do tipo de envolvimento dos alunos com o objeto do conhecimento na possibilidade de relações e associações cooperativas. Quando as crianças trabalharam com princípios teóricos formais propostos pelas professoras o caminho para a formação de conceitos e generalizações se expressaram de modo mais restrito. As atividades do grupo que eram originadas em projetos da escola, com temas do cotidiano, e propostas a partir das necessidades e interesses dos alunos, revelaram maior interação e apropriação do conhecimento por parte deles. Os resultados das observações e entrevistas estão analisados principalmente a partir da mediação simbólica de Vygotsky, na qual a linguagem, os signos e símbolos verbais e não verbais compartilhados nas relações sociais medeiam o processo de aquisição de conhecimento. Em Piaget, o enfoque da epistemologia genética, enquanto operacionalidade construtivista, possibilitou a reflexão sobre a interação do sujeito com o grupo e também com o objeto do conhecimento. A presença de Bakhtin, neste trabalho, mostrou uma visão da linguagem, que ultrapassa os códigos linguísticos, pela ideologia presente nos enunciados. Esses autores e suas ideias sobre o aprendizado e o desenvolvimento complementam esse momento de pensar o fazer pedagógico no cotidiano da sala de aula. / This study is focused on the symbolic mediation undertaken by teachers in an Elementary School with children aged 7 to 8 and 10 to 16. The reflection of such practices was made in the light of interactionist theoretical assumptions. The content presentation, the cooperative tasks, the representations of the object of study, the knowledge brought by the students and the socialization of knowledge were analyzed in the two classroom groups. It was an ethnographic exploratory research with observations, interviews, field journal, and reports, within a framework of references, on indicators of scientific concept formation based on Vygotsky´s theoretical referential. From the results obtained, in many situations, the lessons observed had an oral presentation dynamics and the teacher’s content selection derived from a list that comprised parallel classes and textbooks. In other occasions, some projects were developed due to the interest demonstrated by the students and worked collectively, with a concrete exploration of the study themes. The results showed that when the group worked with projects, the results were better formalized according to the way the students were involved with the object of knowledge as to the possibility of cooperative associations and relationships. When the children worked with formal theoretical principles proposed by teachers, the way for the formation of concepts and generalizations, they were more intimidated. The group activities developed in school projects, with daily life issues, and proposals from the needs and interests of students, showed that the students had greater interaction and knowledge construction. The results of the observations and interviews were analyzed by considering Vygotsky's symbolic mediation, in which language, verbal and nonverbal signs and symbols shared in social relationships mediate the knowledge construction process. In Piaget, the focus of the genetic epistemology, as a constructivist operation, enabled the reflection on the subject's interaction with the group and also with the object of knowledge. In this study, Bakhtin´s presence provided a vision of language that goes beyond the linguistic codes due to the ideology present in statements. These authors and their ideas on learning and development complement this time of reflecting upon the teaching practice in the everyday classroom.

Este trabalho trata da mediação simbólica empreendida por professoras, com crianças do segundo ano1 e da quarta série2 de uma escola do Ensino Fundamental. A reflexão dessas práticas é feita à luz de pressupostos teóricos interacionistas. Foram investigadas, nas duas turmas, as formas de apresentação dos conteúdos, as tarefas cooperativas, as representações do objeto de estudo, os conhecimentos trazidos pelos alunos e a socialização do conhecimento. A pesquisa exploratória foi do tipo etnográfico com observação, entrevistas, diário de campo e o registro, num quadro de referências, de indicadores de formação de conceitos científicos, elaborados a partir dos referenciais teóricos de Vygotsky. Dos resultados obtidos, em muitas situações, as aulas observadas obedeceram a uma dinâmica de exposição oral e os conteúdos surgiram de seleção feita pelas professoras a partir de listagem combinada por classes paralelas e livros didáticos. Em outros momentos, foram desenvolvidos projetos que surgiram dos interesses demonstrados pelos alunos e trabalhados em moldes cooperativos, nos quais fizeram explorações concretas dos temas de estudo. Os resultados indicam que quando o grupo trabalhou com os projetos, os resultados foram melhor formalizados em função do tipo de envolvimento dos alunos com o objeto do conhecimento na possibilidade de relações e associações cooperativas. Quando as crianças trabalharam com princípios teóricos formais propostos pelas professoras o caminho para a formação de conceitos e generalizações se expressaram de modo mais restrito. As atividades do grupo que eram originadas em projetos da escola, com temas do cotidiano, e propostas a partir das necessidades e interesses dos alunos, revelaram maior interação e apropriação do conhecimento por parte deles. Os resultados das observações e entrevistas estão analisados principalmente a partir da mediação simbólica de Vygotsky, na qual a linguagem, os signos e símbolos verbais e não verbais compartilhados nas relações sociais medeiam o processo de aquisição de conhecimento. Em Piaget, o enfoque da epistemologia genética, enquanto operacionalidade construtivista, possibilitou a reflexão sobre a interação do sujeito com o grupo e também com o objeto do conhecimento. A presença de Bakhtin, neste trabalho, mostrou uma visão da linguagem, que ultrapassa os códigos linguísticos, pela ideologia presente nos enunciados. Esses autores e suas ideias sobre o aprendizado e o desenvolvimento complementam esse momento de pensar o fazer pedagógico no cotidiano da sala de aula. / This study is focused on the symbolic mediation undertaken by teachers in an Elementary School with children aged 7 to 8 and 10 to 16. The reflection of such practices was made in the light of interactionist theoretical assumptions. The content presentation, the cooperative tasks, the representations of the object of study, the knowledge brought by the students and the socialization of knowledge were analyzed in the two classroom groups. It was an ethnographic exploratory research with observations, interviews, field journal, and reports, within a framework of references, on indicators of scientific concept formation based on Vygotsky´s theoretical referential. From the results obtained, in many situations, the lessons observed had an oral presentation dynamics and the teacher’s content selection derived from a list that comprised parallel classes and textbooks. In other occasions, some projects were developed due to the interest demonstrated by the students and worked collectively, with a concrete exploration of the study themes. The results showed that when the group worked with projects, the results were better formalized according to the way the students were involved with the object of knowledge as to the possibility of cooperative associations and relationships. When the children worked with formal theoretical principles proposed by teachers, the way for the formation of concepts and generalizations, they were more intimidated. The group activities developed in school projects, with daily life issues, and proposals from the needs and interests of students, showed that the students had greater interaction and knowledge construction. The results of the observations and interviews were analyzed by considering Vygotsky's symbolic mediation, in which language, verbal and nonverbal signs and symbols shared in social relationships mediate the knowledge construction process. In Piaget, the focus of the genetic epistemology, as a constructivist operation, enabled the reflection on the subject's interaction with the group and also with the object of knowledge. In this study, Bakhtin´s presence provided a vision of language that goes beyond the linguistic codes due to the ideology present in statements. These authors and their ideas on learning and development complement this time of reflecting upon the teaching practice in the everyday classroom.

A síntese, que segue, visa examinar de que modo acontece o processo de formação de conceitos científicos em crianças com necessidades educacionais especiais na 1ª série do ensino fundamental. Para tanto, tomou-se como suporte conceitual os postulados da psicologia sócio-histórica de Vygotsky e seus contemporâneos Luria e Leontiev. Esses autores encerram um alinhamento teórico em relação ao desenvolvimento das funções psicológicas superiores "avançadas" - com relevo especial no que se refere aos conceitos científicos - como um processo que pressupõe constantes interações com signos e ferramentas culturais em situações específicas, como, por exemplo, o espaço escolar. Salienta-se que Vygotsky (1928) considerava os processos de escolarização, mais precisamente a inserção de crianças com necessidades especiais na escola regular, como imprescindíveis para que houvesse a apropriação instrumental que proporcionasse não apenas o manejo sociocultural, mas o constituir-se como um ser humanizado, pertencente ao gênero humano. Partindo desse ideário, precursor nos processos de integração/inclusão, a implementação da pesquisa aconteceu em uma escola de educação básica da cidade de Santa Maria/RS, mais precisamente em duas primeiras séries do ensino fundamental, junto a três crianças consideradas com necessidades educacionais especiais, com idades variando entre oito e onze anos. Os aspectos operacionais da investigação se desenrolaram através da análise qualitativa de caráter etnográfico, especificamente por de três estudos de caso, utilizando-se como instrumentos para a coleta de dados: anotações de campo, entrevistas planejadas e estruturadas, análise de documentos, que possibilitaram a elaboração de uma matriz conceitual. Os resultados obtidos estabeleceram diversos momentos desse processo formativo, os quais incorporaram características de transitividade, relatividade, apropriação dinâmica e conscientização em termos de generalização conceitual, pois estiveram imersos em um processo de formação que não tem um fim em si mesmo, mas que se encontra intimamente vinculado ao entorno sociocultural presente no universo escolar. As conclusões confirmam o caráter indispensável da escolarização como um grande propulsor na formação das funções psicológicas superiores, particularmente no que se refere aos conceitos científicos. E, ainda, ratificam a hipótese da escola regular como locus relevante, onde se evidenciam muitos dos constructos intelectuais necessários à interação cultural por parte de crianças consideradas com necessidades educacionais especiais. / The following synthesis aims for examining in which way the formation process of scientific concepts happens in children with special educational needs in the first grade of fundamental school. Postulate of socio-historical psychology of Vygostsky and his contemporaries Luria and Leontiev were used as conceptual supporting. These authors close a theoretical alignment in relation to the development of "advanced" superior psychological functions - with special attention to scientific concepts - as a process which presupposes constant interactions with cultural signs and tools in specific situations, for example, the school space. It points out that Vigotsky (1928) considered the school processes, more precisely the insertion of children with special needs in regular school, as essential so that instrumental appropriation occurred and offered not only the sociocultural handling but also the 'constitute oneself' as a humanized being, pertaining to human gender. From this idea, precursor in the integration/inclusion processes, the research implementation took place in a basic educational school in the city of Santa Maria/RS, more precisely in the two first grades of fundamental education, along with the three children considered with special educational needs, between eight and eleven years old. The operational aspects of investigation unfolded through qualitative analysis of ethnographic character, specifically through three case studies, using as instruments to data collection: notes, planned and structured interviews, analysis of documents, which permitted the elaboration of a conceptual matrix. The obtained results established several moments of this formative process, in which incorporated characteristics of transitivity, relativity, dynamic appropriation and awareness in terms of conceptual generalization since they were immersed in a formation process that do not have an end in itself, but it is intimately linked to the sociocultural spread presented in the school universe. The conclusions confirm the indispensable character of 'schooling' as a big propeller in the formation of superior functions, particularly in relation to scientific concepts. And they still ratify the hypothesis of the regular school as relevant locus where several intellectual constructions needed to cultural interaction by children considered with special educational needs were evident.

Submitted by Simone Maisonave (simonemaisonave@hotmail.com) on 2016-08-26T16:37:31Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Larissa Pires Bilhalba_Dissertacao.pdf: 3197918 bytes, checksum: c53608714f9eeb6675fcfbb248fc6fdc (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Simone Maisonave (simonemaisonave@hotmail.com) on 2016-08-26T16:37:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Larissa Pires Bilhalba_Dissertacao.pdf: 3197918 bytes, checksum: c53608714f9eeb6675fcfbb248fc6fdc (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Aline Batista (alinehb.ufpel@gmail.com) on 2016-08-26T17:30:24Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Larissa Pires Bilhalba_Dissertacao.pdf: 3197918 bytes, checksum: c53608714f9eeb6675fcfbb248fc6fdc (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-26T17:30:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Larissa Pires Bilhalba_Dissertacao.pdf: 3197918 bytes, checksum: c53608714f9eeb6675fcfbb248fc6fdc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-12 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / A pesquisa teve como objetivo planejar, implementar e avaliar uma intervenção pedagógica, à luz da Teoria Histórico-cultural da Atividade e do construto da Autorregulação da Aprendizagem, visando o desenvolvimento dos conceitos científicos de Mecânica em alunos do curso de Licenciatura em Física da Universidade Federal de Pelotas. Esse curso vem enfrentando altos índices de reprovação e evasão, principalmente nos semestres iniciais e, um dos fatores que podem estar associados a esses índices é a dificuldade de aprendizagem dos conceitos de Mecânica, que são apresentados nas disciplinas introdutórias do curso (BILHALBA; AYALA FILHO, 2012). Com o intuito de dirimir esse problema o curso de Licenciatura em Física implementou uma nova disciplina no primeiro semestre intitulada de Introdução ao Pensamento Físico, a qual intenciona desenvolver os conceitos científicos de Mecânica. No contexto dessa disciplina, foi realizada a intervenção pedagógica, que buscou promover o desenvolvimento desses conceitos, e levar os alunos a utilizarem estratégias autorregulatórias que promovessem a tomada de consciência sobre as características de seus próprios processos de aprendizagem. Essa intervenção, foi realizada no primeiro semestre, totalizando 14 aulas e com 20 alunos participantes. A pesquisa propriamente dita, de caráter qualitativo, teve como foco analisar os efeitos da intervenção, verificando se os alunos conseguiram autorregular sua aprendizagem e se avançaram no desenvolvimento dos conceitos científicos trabalhados. Os resultados mostraram que a metodologia da intervenção pedagógica, baseada no construto da autorregulação da aprendizagem e da teoria histórico-cultural da atividade, realizada na disciplina de Introdução ao Pensamento Físico, parece poder desenvolver avanços na aprendizagem dos alunos podendo inclusive ser um instrumento importante para a reformulação das disciplinas iniciais dos cursos de Física. / The research aimed to plan, implement and evaluate a pedagogical intervention in the light of historical-cultural Theory of Activity and construct of Self-Regulation of Learning, for the development of scientific concepts in mechanics students of Degree in Physics from the Federal University Pelotas. This course has been facing high rates of failure and dropout, particularly in the early semesters and one of the factors that may be associated with these indexes is the difficulty of learning the mechanics concepts that are presented in the introductory course subjects (BILHALBA; AYALA FILHO, 2012). In order to resolve this problem the Degree in Physics implemented a new discipline in the first half titled Introduction to Physical Thought, which intends to develop scientific concepts of mechanics. In the context of this discipline, the educational intervention was carried out, which sought to promote the development of these concepts; and lead the students to use self-regulatory strategies that promote the awareness of the characteristics of their own learning processes. This intervention was carried out in the first half, totaling 14 classes and 20 students participating. The research itself, qualitative, focused on analyzing the effects of intervention, making sure that the students could self-regulate their learning and advanced the development of scientific concepts worked. The results showed that the methodology of pedagogical intervention, based on the self-regulation of learning and construct cultural-historical activity theory, held in an Introduction to Physical Thought, seems able to develop advances in student learning and may also be an important tool for the reformulation of the initial disciplines of physics courses.

L’approche d’apprentissage par problèmes (APP) a vu le jour, dans sa forme contemporaine, à la Faculté de médecine de l’Université MacMaster en Ontario (Canada) à la fin des années 1960. Très rapidement cette nouvelle approche pédagogique active, centrée sur l’étudiant et basée sur les problèmes biomédicaux, va être adoptée par de nombreuses facultés de médecine de par le monde et gagner d’autres disciplines. Cependant, malgré ce succès apparent, l’APP est aussi une approche controversée, notamment en éducation médicale, où elle a été accusée de favoriser un apprentissage superficiel. Par ailleurs, les étudiants formés par cette approche réussiraient moins bien que les autres aux tests évaluant l’acquisition des concepts scientifiques de base, et il n’a jamais été prouvé que les médecins formés par l’APP seraient meilleurs que les autres. Pour mieux comprendre ces résultats, la présente recherche a voulu explorer l’apprentissage de ces concepts scientifiques, en tant que processus de construction, chez des étudiants formés par l’APP, à la Faculté de médecine de l’Université de Montréal, en nous appuyant sur le cadre théorique socioconstructivisme de Vygotski. Pour cet auteur, la formation des concepts est un processus complexe de construction de sens, en plusieurs étapes, qui ne peut se concevoir que dans le cadre d’une résolution de problèmes. Nous avons réalisé une étude de cas, multicas, intrasite, les cas étant deux groupes de neuf étudiants en médecine avec leur tuteur, que nous avons suivi pendant une session complète de la mi-novembre à la mi-décembre 2007. Deux grands objectifs étaient poursuivis: premièrement, fournir des analyses détaillées et des matériaux réflectifs et théoriques susceptibles de rendre compte du phénomène de construction des concepts scientifiques de base par des étudiants en médecine dans le contexte de l’APP. Deuxièmement, explorer, les approches de travail personnel des étudiants, lors de la phase de travail individuel, afin de répondre à la question de recherche suivante : Comment la dynamique pédagogique de l’APP en médecine permet-elle de rendre compte de l’apprentissage des concepts scientifiques de base? Il s’agissait d’une étude qualitative et les données ont été recueillies par différents moyens : observation non participante et enregistrement vidéo des tutoriaux d’APP, interview semi-structuré des étudiants, discussion avec les tuteurs et consultation de leurs manuels, puis traitées par diverses opérations: transcription des enregistrements, regroupement, classification. L’analyse a porté sur des collections de verbatim issus des transcriptions, sur le suivi de la construction des concepts à travers le temps et les sessions, sur le role du tuteur pour aider au développement de ces concepts Les analyses suggèrent que l’approche d’APP est, en général, bien accueillie, et les débats sont soutenus, avec en moyenne entre trois et quatre échanges par minute. Par rapport au premier objectif, nous avons effectivement fourni des explications détaillées sur la dynamique de construction des concepts qui s'étend lors des trois phases de l'APP, à savoir la phase aller, la phase de recherche individuelle et la phase retour. Pour chaque cas étudié, nous avons mis en évidence les représentations conceptuelles initiales à la phase aller, co-constructions des étudiants, sous la guidance du tuteur et nous avons suivi la transformation de ces concepts spontanés naïfs, lors des discussions de la phase retour. Le choix du cadre théorique socio constructiviste de Vygotski nous a permis de réfléchir sur le rôle de médiation joué par les composantes du système interactif de l'APP, que nous avons considéré comme une zone proximale de développement (ZPD) au sens élargi, qui sont le problème, le tuteur, l'étudiant et ses pairs, les ressources, notamment l'artefact graphique carte conceptuelle utilisée de façon intensive lors des tutoriaux aller et retour, pour arriver à la construction des concepts scientifiques. Notre recherche a montré qu'en revenant de leurs recherches, les étudiants avaient trois genres de représentations conceptuelles: des concepts corrects, des concepts incomplets et des concepts erronés. Il faut donc que les concepts scientifiques théoriques soient à leur tour confrontés au problème concret, dans l'interaction sociale pour une validation des attributs qui les caractérisent. Dans cette interaction, le tuteur joue un rôle clé complexe de facilitateur, de médiateur, essentiellement par le langage. L'analyse thématique de ses interventions a permis d'en distinguer cinq types: la gestion du groupe, l'argumentation, les questions de différents types, le modelling et les conclusions. Nous avons montré le lien entre les questions du tuteur et le type de réponses des étudiants, pour recommander un meilleur équilibre entre les différents types de questions. Les étudiants, également par les échanges verbaux, mais aussi par la construction collective des cartes conceptuelles initiales et définitives, participent à une co-construction de ces concepts. L'analyse de leurs interactions nous a permis de relever différentes fonctions du langage, pour souligner l'intérêt des interactions argumentatives, marqueurs d'un travail collaboratif en profondeur pour la co-construction des concepts Nous avons aussi montré l'intérêt des cartes conceptuelles non seulement pour visualiser les concepts, mais aussi en tant qu'artefact, outil de médiation psychique à double fonction communicative et sémiotique. Concernant le second objectif, l’exploration du travail personnel des étudiants, on constate que les étudiants de première année font un travail plus approfondi de recherche, et utilisent plus souvent des stratégies de lecture plus efficaces que leurs collègues de deuxième année. Ceux-ci se contentent, en général, des ouvrages de référence, font de simples lectures et s’appuient beaucoup sur les résumés faits par leurs prédécesseurs. Le recours aux ouvrages de référence essentiellement comme source d'information apporte une certaine pauvreté au débat à la phase retour avec peu d'échanges de type argumentatif, témoins d'un travail profond. Ainsi donc, par tout ce soutien qu'elle permet d'apporter aux étudiants pour la construction de leurs connaissances, pour le type d'apprentissage qu'elle offre, l’APP reste une approche unique, digne d’intérêt. Cependant, elle nécessite d'être améliorée par des interventions au niveau du tuteur et des étudiants. / The Problem-based learning (PBL) approach was developed, in its contemporary form, at the Faculty of Medicine, of MacMaster University in Ontario (Canada) in the late 1960s. Very quickly, this new active pedagogical approach, student-centered and based on biomedical problems, will be adopted by many medical schools around the world and used also in other disciplines. Despite its apparent success, however, PBL is also a controversial approach, particularly in medical education, where it has been blamed for promoting superficial learning. Furthermore, it has been documented that students trained by this approach, tend to be less successful at tests assessing the acquisition of basic scientific concepts.To what degree doctors trained by PBL excel in their work as doctors, remains to be determined as well. To better understand these results, this study sought to explore further the construction of scientific concepts, in the context of PBL, at the Faculty of Medicine, of Université de Montréal. The study is grounded in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and its inherent treatment of concepts’ formation as a complex construction process of meaning. We conducted a case study, multiple cases in the same site, the cases being two groups of nine medical students with their tutor that we followed during a full session, from mid-November to mid-December 2007. Two major objectives guided the study: First, we sought to offer a detailed study of the process of meaning making and development of scientific concepts by medical students in the context of PBL. Second, we studied students’ individual work that followed initial tutor mediated discussion of the case, and preceded the return session. We tried to answer to the following research question: How do the dynamics of PBL in medicine support students’construction of scientific concepts? The study was qualitative in nature, and data were collected through various means: no participant observation, video recordings of PBL tutorial sessions, semi-structured interviews of students, discussion with tutors and the consultation of their manuals. Analysis entailed the verbatim transcriptions of the observed problem solving sessions and interviews, and in turn inductive data analysis of concept formation accross time and over session. Through the grouping and classification of data and study of evolution of concepts over time, insights could be gathered into students’development of scientific concepts and the tutor’s role in this construction. Analysis suggests that PBL approach is generally well received, and discussions are lively, with an average of three to four exchanges per minute. Considering the first goal, we offered detailed explanations of the dynamics of concepts’ building that extends in all three phases of the PBL, namely the initial phase, the individual student research phase and the return phase. For each case studied, we highlighted the initial conceptual representations, resulting of students’ interactions, under the guidance of the tutor, and followed their transformation, through discussions at return phase. The choice of social constructivist theoretical framework of Vygotsky has allowed us to reflect on the mediation role played by components of the interactive system of PBL, that we considered as a zone of proximal development (ZPD) in a broader sense, and which are the problem, the tutor, the student and his peers, resources, including graphics artifact conceptual map, used extensively in all tutorials, to support the construction of scientific concepts. Our research has shown that students developed three kinds of conceptual representations: correct concepts, incomplete concepts and misconceptions, returning from their research. So, it is necessary, through social interaction, that attributes of scientific theoretical concepts be validated by facing the practical problem. In this interaction the tutor plays a key complex role of facilitator, mediator, mainly through language. Thematic analysis of his interventions helped to distinguish five themes: group management, arguments, questions of different types, modeling and conclusions. We have shown the link between tutor’s questions and the type of student responses, to recommend a better balance between different types of tutor’s questions. Students, also by verbal exchanges and by the collective construction of initial and final concept maps participate in the co-construction of these concepts. Analysis of their interactions enabled us to identify different functions of language, to emphasize the importance of argumentative interactions, markers of in depth collaborative work. We also showed interest of concept maps not only to visualize the concepts, but also as artifacts and tools of psychic mediation that play both, communicative and semiotics functions, in the development of scientifically sound concepts. Regarding the second objective, the exploration of students’ personal work, we found that first year students pursued a more thorough search, and relied on more effective reading strategies than their second year colleagues. These second year students relied more on reference books, reading simply and relying heavily on the summaries made by their predecessors, which is suggestive of a more superficial learning. Those students also, relied more on tutor. By using textbooks essentially as information source, debates were marked by cognitive low level exchanges, leading to little argumentative exchange and lack of deep and engaging collaborative work. Overall, however, the research suggests PBL is a unique, worthwhile pedagogical approach, offering students with opportunities to construct new conceptual understandings of complex medical concepts with help of a team within the zone of proximal development. But it requires to be improved by interventions concerning both tutors and students.

RÉSUMÉ L’approche d’apprentissage par problèmes (APP) a vu le jour, dans sa forme contemporaine, à la Faculté de médecine de l’Université MacMaster en Ontario (Canada) à la fin des années 1960. Très rapidement cette nouvelle approche pédagogique active, centrée sur l’étudiant et basée sur les problèmes biomédicaux, va être adoptée par de nombreuses facultés de médecine de par le monde et gagner d’autres disciplines. Cependant, malgré ce succès apparent, l’APP est aussi une approche controversée, notamment en éducation médicale, où elle a été accusée de favoriser un apprentissage superficiel. Par ailleurs, les étudiants formés par cette approche réussiraient moins bien que les autres aux tests évaluant l’acquisition des concepts scientifiques de base, et il n’a jamais été prouvé que les médecins formés par l’APP seraient meilleurs que les autres. Pour mieux comprendre ces résultats, la présente recherche a voulu explorer l’apprentissage de ces concepts scientifiques, en tant que processus de construction, chez des étudiants formés par l’APP, à la Faculté de médecine de l’Université de Montréal, en nous appuyant sur le cadre théorique socioconstructivisme de Vygotski. Pour cet auteur, la formation des concepts est un processus complexe de construction de sens, en plusieurs étapes, qui ne peut se concevoir que dans le cadre d’une résolution de problèmes. Nous avons réalisé une étude de cas, multicas, intrasite, les cas étant deux groupes de neuf étudiants en médecine avec leur tuteur, que nous avons suivi pendant une session complète de la mi-novembre à la mi-décembre 2007. Deux grands objectifs étaient poursuivis: premièrement, fournir des analyses détaillées et des matériaux réflectifs et théoriques susceptibles de rendre compte du phénomène de construction des concepts scientifiques de base par des étudiants en médecine dans le contexte de l’APP. Deuxièmement, explorer, les approches de travail personnel des étudiants, lors de la phase de travail individuel, afin de répondre à la question de recherche suivante : Comment la dynamique pédagogique de l’APP en médecine permet-elle de rendre compte de l’apprentissage des concepts scientifiques de base? Il s’agissait d’une étude qualitative et les données ont été recueillies par différents moyens : observation non participante et enregistrement vidéo des tutoriaux d’APP, interview semi-structuré des étudiants, discussion avec les tuteurs et consultation de leurs manuels, puis traitées par diverses opérations: transcription des enregistrements, regroupement, classification. L’analyse a porté sur des collections de verbatim issus des transcriptions, sur le suivi de la construction des concepts à travers le temps et les sessions, sur le role du tuteur pour aider au développement de ces concepts Les analyses suggèrent que l’approche d’APP est, en général, bien accueillie, et les débats sont soutenus, avec en moyenne entre trois et quatre échanges par minute. Par rapport au premier objectif, nous avons effectivement fourni des explications détaillées sur la dynamique de construction des concepts qui s'étend lors des trois phases de l'APP, à savoir la phase aller, la phase de recherche individuelle et la phase retour. Pour chaque cas étudié, nous avons mis en évidence les représentations conceptuelles initiales à la phase aller, co-constructions des étudiants, sous la guidance du tuteur et nous avons suivi la transformation de ces concepts spontanés naïfs, lors des discussions de la phase retour. Le choix du cadre théorique socio constructiviste de Vygotski nous a permis de réfléchir sur le rôle de médiation joué par les composantes du système interactif de l'APP, que nous avons considéré comme une zone proximale de développement (ZPD) au sens élargi, qui sont le problème, le tuteur, l'étudiant et ses pairs, les ressources, notamment l'artefact graphique carte conceptuelle utilisée de façon intensive lors des tutoriaux aller et retour, pour arriver à la construction des concepts scientifiques. Notre recherche a montré qu'en revenant de leurs recherches, les étudiants avaient trois genres de représentations conceptuelles: des concepts corrects, des concepts incomplets et des concepts erronés. Il faut donc que les concepts scientifiques théoriques soient à leur tour confrontés au problème concret, dans l'interaction sociale pour une validation des attributs qui les caractérisent. Dans cette interaction, le tuteur joue un rôle clé complexe de facilitateur, de médiateur, essentiellement par le langage. L'analyse thématique de ses interventions a permis d'en distinguer cinq types: la gestion du groupe, l'argumentation, les questions de différents types, le modelling et les conclusions. Nous avons montré le lien entre les questions du tuteur et le type de réponses des étudiants, pour recommander un meilleur équilibre entre les différents types de questions. Les étudiants, également par les échanges verbaux, mais aussi par la construction collective des cartes conceptuelles initiales et définitives, participent à une co-construction de ces concepts. L'analyse de leurs interactions nous a permis de relever différentes fonctions du langage, pour souligner l'intérêt des interactions argumentatives, marqueurs d'un travail collaboratif en profondeur pour la co-construction des concepts Nous avons aussi montré l'intérêt des cartes conceptuelles non seulement pour visualiser les concepts, mais aussi en tant qu'artefact, outil de médiation psychique à double fonction communicative et sémiotique. Concernant le second objectif, l’exploration du travail personnel des étudiants, on constate que les étudiants de première année font un travail plus approfondi de recherche, et utilisent plus souvent des stratégies de lecture plus efficaces que leurs collègues de deuxième année. Ceux-ci se contentent, en général, des ouvrages de référence, font de simples lectures et s’appuient beaucoup sur les résumés faits par leurs prédécesseurs. Le recours aux ouvrages de référence essentiellement comme source d'information apporte une certaine pauvreté au débat à la phase retour avec peu d'échanges de type argumentatif, témoins d'un travail profond. Ainsi donc, par tout ce soutien qu'elle permet d'apporter aux étudiants pour la construction de leurs connaissances, pour le type d'apprentissage qu'elle offre, l’APP reste une approche unique, digne d’intérêt. Cependant, elle nécessite d'être améliorée par des interventions au niveau du tuteur et des étudiants. / ABSTRACT The Problem-based learning (PBL) approach was developed, in its contemporary form, at the Faculty of Medicine, of MacMaster University in Ontario (Canada) in the late 1960s. Very quickly, this new active pedagogical approach, student-centered and based on biomedical problems, will be adopted by many medical schools around the world and used also in other disciplines. Despite its apparent success, however, PBL is also a controversial approach, particularly in medical education, where it has been blamed for promoting superficial learning. Furthermore, it has been documented that students trained by this approach, tend to be less successful at tests assessing the acquisition of basic scientific concepts.To what degree doctors trained by PBL excel in their work as doctors, remains to be determined as well. To better understand these results, this study sought to explore further the construction of scientific concepts, in the context of PBL, at the Faculty of Medicine, of Université de Montréal. The study is grounded in Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and its inherent treatment of concepts’ formation as a complex construction process of meaning. We conducted a case study, multiple cases in the same site, the cases being two groups of nine medical students with their tutor that we followed during a full session, from mid-November to mid-December 2007. Two major objectives guided the study: First, we sought to offer a detailed study of the process of meaning making and development of scientific concepts by medical students in the context of PBL. Second, we studied students’ individual work that followed initial tutor mediated discussion of the case, and preceded the return session. We tried to answer to the following research question: How do the dynamics of PBL in medicine support students’construction of scientific concepts? The study was qualitative in nature, and data were collected through various means: no participant observation, video recordings of PBL tutorial sessions, semi-structured interviews of students, discussion with tutors and the consultation of their manuals. Analysis entailed the verbatim transcriptions of the observed problem solving sessions and interviews, and in turn inductive data analysis of concept formation accross time and over session. Through the grouping and classification of data and study of evolution of concepts over time, insights could be gathered into students’development of scientific concepts and the tutor’s role in this construction. Analysis suggests that PBL approach is generally well received, and discussions are lively, with an average of three to four exchanges per minute. Considering the first goal, we offered detailed explanations of the dynamics of concepts’ building that extends in all three phases of the PBL, namely the initial phase, the individual student research phase and the return phase. For each case studied, we highlighted the initial conceptual representations, resulting of students’ interactions, under the guidance of the tutor, and followed their transformation, through discussions at return phase. The choice of social constructivist theoretical framework of Vygotsky has allowed us to reflect on the mediation role played by components of the interactive system of PBL, that we considered as a zone of proximal development (ZPD) in a broader sense, and which are the problem, the tutor, the student and his peers, resources, including graphics artifact conceptual map, used extensively in all tutorials, to support the construction of scientific concepts. Our research has shown that students developed three kinds of conceptual representations: correct concepts, incomplete concepts and misconceptions, returning from their research. So, it is necessary, through social interaction, that attributes of scientific theoretical concepts be validated by facing the practical problem. In this interaction the tutor plays a key complex role of facilitator, mediator, mainly through language. Thematic analysis of his interventions helped to distinguish five themes: group management, arguments, questions of different types, modeling and conclusions. We have shown the link between tutor’s questions and the type of student responses, to recommend a better balance between different types of tutor’s questions. Students, also by verbal exchanges and by the collective construction of initial and final concept maps participate in the co-construction of these concepts. Analysis of their interactions enabled us to identify different functions of language, to emphasize the importance of argumentative interactions, markers of in depth collaborative work. We also showed interest of concept maps not only to visualize the concepts, but also as artifacts and tools of psychic mediation that play both, communicative and semiotics functions, in the development of scientifically sound concepts. Regarding the second objective, the exploration of students’ personal work, we found that first year students pursued a more thorough search, and relied on more effective reading strategies than their second year colleagues. These second year students relied more on reference books, reading simply and relying heavily on the summaries made by their predecessors, which is suggestive of a more superficial learning. Those students also, relied more on tutor. By using textbooks essentially as information source, debates were marked by cognitive low level exchanges, leading to little argumentative exchange and lack of deep and engaging collaborative work. Overall, however, the research suggests PBL is a unique, worthwhile pedagogical approach, offering students with opportunities to construct new conceptual understandings of complex medical concepts with help of a team within the zone of proximal development. But it requires to be improved by interventions concerning both tutors and students.