Introdução - Desde a década de 70 a sociedade contemporânea depara-se com riscos e incertezas que apresentam características únicas. Casos emblemáticos nos campos da saúde, segurança e meio ambiente são discutidos pela mídia, organizações não-governamentais, governos, empresas e sociedade civil, e sobre eles o direito é chamado a se posicionar. Para lidar com esses temas, ao longo das duas últimas décadas o direito (internacional e do ambiente) construiu o princípio da precaução. Objetivo - A pesquisa tem por objeto discernir o que o princípio da precaução tem sido, do que ele não é, e o que ele pode vir a ser, contribuindo assim para o estudo das dimensões jurídicas da Sociedade do Risco e das relações entre o direito e a incerteza. Fonte bibliográfica - O estudo se baseou, sobretudo, na literatura francesa sobre o princípio da precaução, na jurisprudência internacional e nas recentes iniciativas da União Européia e da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Considerou-se também a doutrina, jurisprudência e legislação brasileira. Aspectos abordados - Abordou-se a configuração da Sociedade do Risco e como o direito do ambiente se relaciona com suas dimensões científicas e tecnológicas. Em seguida, foi estudada a consolidação desse princípio, em sua dimensão ética e jurídica. Por lidar com temas atuais e polêmicos, sua aplicação é ainda controversa, mas as dificuldades e críticas a ele formuladas auxiliam a evidenciar suas potencialidades. Conclusão - no Brasil é ainda precária a compreensão do que o princípio da precaução é, ou mesmo do que ele não é. Os tribunais confundem precaução e prevenção; o princípio da precaução é usado como sinônimo de uma obrigação geral de preservar o meio ambiente ou como justificativa para abstenções. Uma incorporação mais eficaz desse princípio requer o conhecimento da sua teoria e prática. A aplicação do princípio da precaução deve ser pautada na realização de análises de riscos, na adoção de parâmetros aptos a balizar sua prática e na utilização de stantards jurídicos. A controvérsia promovida pelo princípio da precaução estimula uma atitude reflexiva com relação à ciência e fortalece, no direito e fora dele, a tomada de decisões envolvendo a opinião pública e a comunidade científica. / Introduction - Since the 1970s, the society at large has been faced with unprecedented risks and uncertainties. Landmark cases in the health, safety and environmental areas have been extensively debated by the media, nongovernmental organizations, governments, corporations and the civil society as a whole, and the law has been called upon to take a stance over these issues. To cope with these issues, international and environment law has devised, over the last two decades, the so-called precautionary principle. Scope - This research seeks to draw a distinction between what the precautionary principle has been from what it is not, and what it may come to be, thus contributing to studies on the legal realms of the Risk Society and the relations between the law and uncertainties. Bibliography - This study has primarily relied on French literature covering the precautionary principle, international case law, and the recent initiatives of both the European Union and the World Health Organization. Brazilian case law, legal writings and laws have also been taken into consideration. Aspects - This work addresses the framework of Risk Society and how environmental law relates to its scientific aspects. Then, the consolidation of such principle on its ethical and legal fronts was studied. As current (and rather debatable) themes are into play, the application of Risk Society is still controversial, but the difficulties faced by such application and the criticism directed at it help understand the potential characteristics of this framework. Conclusion - In Brazil, understanding what the precautionary principle stands for (or even what it does not) is still incipient. Brazilian courts make a confusion between precaution and prevention: the precautionary principle is taken as a synonym for a general duty to conserve the environment or as a reason for limitations. A deeper understanding of this precautionary principle calls for a greater awareness of its theory and practice. Applying the precautionary principle should thus be grounded on risk analyses; on the adoption of standards that are capable of governing its practice; and on effective use of legal standards. The controversy over the precautionary principle has invited to a more reflective approach to science, while also strengthening (within the realms of law, and beyond) decision-making efforts involving the public opinion and the scientific community.

<p>Assessments of chemical health risks are performed by scientific experts. Their intended use is as bases for decisions. This thesis tries to answer the questions of how uncertainty is, and should be, communicated in such risk assessments. The thesis consists of two articles and an introductory essay.</p><p>Article I focuses on the linguistic aspect of the communication of uncertainty in risk assessments. The aim of the article is to elucidate how risk assessors actually indicate uncertainty in risk assessment reports. Because of the prevalent uncertainty in risk assessment, deriving from several sources, uncertainty is communicated in verbal, rather than numerical terms. A typology of uncertainty indicators – phrases used to express uncertainty – is proposed and applied to the reviewed reports. It is found that the use of such phrases is not transparent, and the article concludes by a number of recommendations for improving the practice.</p><p>Article II mainly deals with the content of the communication. The overall question treated is what a characterization of uncertainty should include if a decision made on the basis of the risk assessment information is to be as well-founded as possible. A set of conditions is put forward to be fulfilled by a characterization of uncertainty if it is to be adequate from a decision-making point of view.</p><p>The greater part of the introductory essay is devoted to the concept of uncertainty which, at the conceptual level, does not appear to have been much discussed by philosophers</p>

Introdução - Desde a década de 70 a sociedade contemporânea depara-se com riscos e incertezas que apresentam características únicas. Casos emblemáticos nos campos da saúde, segurança e meio ambiente são discutidos pela mídia, organizações não-governamentais, governos, empresas e sociedade civil, e sobre eles o direito é chamado a se posicionar. Para lidar com esses temas, ao longo das duas últimas décadas o direito (internacional e do ambiente) construiu o princípio da precaução. Objetivo - A pesquisa tem por objeto discernir o que o princípio da precaução tem sido, do que ele não é, e o que ele pode vir a ser, contribuindo assim para o estudo das dimensões jurídicas da Sociedade do Risco e das relações entre o direito e a incerteza. Fonte bibliográfica - O estudo se baseou, sobretudo, na literatura francesa sobre o princípio da precaução, na jurisprudência internacional e nas recentes iniciativas da União Européia e da Organização Mundial da Saúde. Considerou-se também a doutrina, jurisprudência e legislação brasileira. Aspectos abordados - Abordou-se a configuração da Sociedade do Risco e como o direito do ambiente se relaciona com suas dimensões científicas e tecnológicas. Em seguida, foi estudada a consolidação desse princípio, em sua dimensão ética e jurídica. Por lidar com temas atuais e polêmicos, sua aplicação é ainda controversa, mas as dificuldades e críticas a ele formuladas auxiliam a evidenciar suas potencialidades. Conclusão - no Brasil é ainda precária a compreensão do que o princípio da precaução é, ou mesmo do que ele não é. Os tribunais confundem precaução e prevenção; o princípio da precaução é usado como sinônimo de uma obrigação geral de preservar o meio ambiente ou como justificativa para abstenções. Uma incorporação mais eficaz desse princípio requer o conhecimento da sua teoria e prática. A aplicação do princípio da precaução deve ser pautada na realização de análises de riscos, na adoção de parâmetros aptos a balizar sua prática e na utilização de stantards jurídicos. A controvérsia promovida pelo princípio da precaução estimula uma atitude reflexiva com relação à ciência e fortalece, no direito e fora dele, a tomada de decisões envolvendo a opinião pública e a comunidade científica. / Introduction - Since the 1970s, the society at large has been faced with unprecedented risks and uncertainties. Landmark cases in the health, safety and environmental areas have been extensively debated by the media, nongovernmental organizations, governments, corporations and the civil society as a whole, and the law has been called upon to take a stance over these issues. To cope with these issues, international and environment law has devised, over the last two decades, the so-called precautionary principle. Scope - This research seeks to draw a distinction between what the precautionary principle has been from what it is not, and what it may come to be, thus contributing to studies on the legal realms of the Risk Society and the relations between the law and uncertainties. Bibliography - This study has primarily relied on French literature covering the precautionary principle, international case law, and the recent initiatives of both the European Union and the World Health Organization. Brazilian case law, legal writings and laws have also been taken into consideration. Aspects - This work addresses the framework of Risk Society and how environmental law relates to its scientific aspects. Then, the consolidation of such principle on its ethical and legal fronts was studied. As current (and rather debatable) themes are into play, the application of Risk Society is still controversial, but the difficulties faced by such application and the criticism directed at it help understand the potential characteristics of this framework. Conclusion - In Brazil, understanding what the precautionary principle stands for (or even what it does not) is still incipient. Brazilian courts make a confusion between precaution and prevention: the precautionary principle is taken as a synonym for a general duty to conserve the environment or as a reason for limitations. A deeper understanding of this precautionary principle calls for a greater awareness of its theory and practice. Applying the precautionary principle should thus be grounded on risk analyses; on the adoption of standards that are capable of governing its practice; and on effective use of legal standards. The controversy over the precautionary principle has invited to a more reflective approach to science, while also strengthening (within the realms of law, and beyond) decision-making efforts involving the public opinion and the scientific community.

Assessments of chemical health risks are performed by scientific experts. Their intended use is as bases for decisions. This thesis tries to answer the questions of how uncertainty is, and should be, communicated in such risk assessments. The thesis consists of two articles and an introductory essay. Article I focuses on the linguistic aspect of the communication of uncertainty in risk assessments. The aim of the article is to elucidate how risk assessors actually indicate uncertainty in risk assessment reports. Because of the prevalent uncertainty in risk assessment, deriving from several sources, uncertainty is communicated in verbal, rather than numerical terms. A typology of uncertainty indicators – phrases used to express uncertainty – is proposed and applied to the reviewed reports. It is found that the use of such phrases is not transparent, and the article concludes by a number of recommendations for improving the practice. Article II mainly deals with the content of the communication. The overall question treated is what a characterization of uncertainty should include if a decision made on the basis of the risk assessment information is to be as well-founded as possible. A set of conditions is put forward to be fulfilled by a characterization of uncertainty if it is to be adequate from a decision-making point of view. The greater part of the introductory essay is devoted to the concept of uncertainty which, at the conceptual level, does not appear to have been much discussed by philosophers / QC 20101208

在經濟發展的過程中，環境污染往往是其代價。石化產業在台灣經濟發展過程中扮演著火車頭的角色，帶動相關產業的勃興，但也帶來日益增加的環境污染與其社會爭議，成為政府部門必須面對的課題。在傳統的環境管制政策當中，科學評估被視為中立、理性客觀之分析技術，能夠有效處理環境問題的方法，其強調專業中立的形象，也與官僚理性所強調的中立性相似。因此這不僅是環境行政程序設計之核心，也是行政正當性的重要來源。但因著環境議題的複雜化、科學不確定性的增加，在行政程序當中，僅著重專家角色的行政程序，相信專家能夠帶來各樣問題的解答，不僅在程序上限制了多元知識類型的進入，既無法共同建構問題、也無法形成決策基礎的一部分；同時行政機關也此程序將決策責任移轉給專家；然而因著科學不確定性，使得專家必須在未知的情況下進行決策，因而使得決策內容會更加保守，讓環境爭議窄化成「如何收集更多資訊」等技術問題。行政機關原欲以專家作為決策正當性的來源，但狹隘的科學想像框架不僅使程序無法有效地處理環境爭議、無法回應來自多元參與者的提問，反而使得決策正當性更加受到嚴重的挑戰。 本研究以國光石化開發案的健康風險議題與六輕工安大火事件兩個案的環評過程為分析案例。在國光石化環評過程，健康風險議題是主要爭議焦點。當時有學者研究指出國光石化營運之後，將對台灣民眾的健康風險帶來重要影響，並指認環評書中所低估或錯估的部分。面對不同的科學研究爭議，環保署依其狹隘的科學框架，欲創制一套評判程序以解決爭議，卻適得其反。與此同時，六輕也在 2010年7 月傳出工安大火事件，地方陸續傳出有吳郭魚、文蛤、雛鴨等大量死亡的農業損失情事，使六輕營運後所造成的環境影響與健康風險問題，受到社會高度矚目。環保署因而要求台塑提出「環境影響調查報告書」進行審查。但環評專案小組因著科學不確定性而難以依科學論證作為基礎做出決策。最終則是以法院判決來作為決策的正當性來源。 本文透過多重資料來源的蒐集，包括田野訪談、環評專案小組會議、專家會議等相關之會議紀錄、相關事件的剪報資料，以及相關會議的參與觀察紀錄等。藉由兩個案的分析，探討行政程序建立在狹隘的科學框架之上時，為何產生行政決策的僵局，探討結構上的侷限與受到的正當性挑戰。並以論述應邁向具社會強健性的知識建構為基礎的開放行政程序，以強化決策正當性的根基。 / The scientific assessment in the traditional environment regulation policy is generally regarded as a rational technique. The common impression of scientific assessment is neutral and specialized, which is similar to the major principle of Bureaucracy, organization by functional specialty, defined by Max Weber. Therefore, the scientific assessment has been not only a foundation of environmental administration procedure, but also a resource of legitimacy. On the contrary, while the government just focuses on the scientific evidence in administrative procedure, there will be the political debates unable to resolve effectively. Because administrative procedure is unable to include multi-knowledge from different stakeholders, administration deal with environmental problems only limits to the sufficiency of scientific evidences. Consequently, administration transfers the responsibility about decision making to the experts committee. But experts committee could not make decision definitely, and the decision would be conservative, because of scientific uncertainty. As a result, the interpretation of environmental problems is narrowed to the proof of causal relationship between pollutants and environmental impacts. Since unknown causal relationships always exist, there will be ongoing arguments and disputes of environmental problems. Taking two examples of the environment impact assessment of a fire accident in the sixth naphtha cracking project in July, 2010, and the KuoKuang Petrochemical Project, 2011, the research analyze the hidden science framework and limitation behind the administrative procedure. The finding is that the technicalization of administration leads to government role shrinking and erodes the legitimacy of decision. In order to strengthen the foundation of legitimacy, administration should rebuild an open administrative procedure to foster socially robust knowledge.

The needs of the free trade regime and governments' legitimate regulatory aims in the area of public health protection conflict. Government health measures create barriers to free trade and are thus disciplined by the trade regime. This conflict is addressed in the rules of the World Trade Organization, in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. This Agreement uses science to mediate the conflict. The reason for the reliance on science is the view that it provides a neutral, universally-valid discipline and that thus the results of testing health measures for scientific validity would be acceptable to both parties in a dispute. This uncritical approach towards science is called into question. An analysis of the relevant science-based disciplines of the SPS Agreement and their interpretation in WTO dispute settlement shows the flaws in this system. A re-evaluation of the WTO rules governing health regulation is called for. / Law / LL.M.

The topic of this thesis is carbon dioxide (CO2) capture and storage (CCS), which is a technology that is currently being promoted by industries, scientists and governments, among others, in order to mitigate climate change despite a continued use of fossil fuels. Because of the complex nature of CCS and the risks it entails, it is controversial. The aim of this thesis is to analyse how the technology may be further developed in a responsible manner. In the first part of the thesis different methods for capturing CO2 from industrial processes as well as power plants are analysed. The aim is to identify early opportunities for CO2 capture, which is considered important because of the urgency of the climate change problem. Three potential early opportunities are studied: i) capturing CO2 from calcining processes such as cement industries by using the oxyfuel process, ii) capturing CO2 from pressurised flue gas, and iii) capturing CO2 from hybrid combined cycles. Each opportunity has properties that may make them competitive in comparison to the more common alternatives if CCS is realised. However, there are also drawbacks. For example, while capturing CO2 from pressurised flue gas enables the use of more compact capture plant designs as well as less expensive and less toxic absorbents, the concept is neither suitable for retrofitting nor has it been promoted by the large and influential corporations. The second part of the thesis has a broader scope than the first and is multidisciplinary in its nature with inspiration from the research field of Science and Technology Studies (STS). The approach is to critically analyse stakeholder percep-tions regarding CCS, with a specific focus on the CCS experts. The thesis sheds new light on the complexity and scientific uncertainty of CCS as well as on the optimism among many of its proponents. Because of the uncertain development when it comes to climate change, fossil fuel use and greenhouse gas emissions, the conclusion is that CCS has to be further developed and demonstrated. A responsible strategy for a future development of CCS would benefit from: i) a search for win-win strategies, ii) increasing use of appropriate analytical tools such as life-cycle analysis, iii) a consideration of fossil fuel scarcity and increasing price volatility, iv) funding of unbiased research and v) increasing simultaneous investments in long-term solutions such as renewable energy alternatives and efficiency improvements. / QC 20100727

The needs of the free trade regime and governments' legitimate regulatory aims in the area of public health protection conflict. Government health measures create barriers to free trade and are thus disciplined by the trade regime. This conflict is addressed in the rules of the World Trade Organization, in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. This Agreement uses science to mediate the conflict. The reason for the reliance on science is the view that it provides a neutral, universally-valid discipline and that thus the results of testing health measures for scientific validity would be acceptable to both parties in a dispute. This uncritical approach towards science is called into question. An analysis of the relevant science-based disciplines of the SPS Agreement and their interpretation in WTO dispute settlement shows the flaws in this system. A re-evaluation of the WTO rules governing health regulation is called for. / Law / LL.M.

Alors que le contentieux des produits de santé n'a jamais été aussi fourni, l'application du régime spécial de responsabilité du fait des produits défectueux issu de la directive européenne du 25 juillet 1985, entraîne l'émergence d'un certain nombre d'incertitudes qui affectent directement le sort des demandes en réparation. Les incertitudes matérielles ont, pour la plupart reçu un traitement efficace par l'action conjuguée de la jurisprudence et du législateur. Si les outils juridiques traditionnels, tels que les présomptions ou la causalité alternative, ont permis de résoudre une partie non négligeable de ces incertitudes, les juges se sont également attachés à développer des outils nouveaux comme la balance bénéfice/risque ou encore la répartition de l'obligation à la dette selon les parts de marché. Cependant, si le développement de ces outils juridiques, plus adaptés aux spécificités des produits de santé, a permis d'apporter une solution efficace aux incertitudes matérielles, le traitement de l'incertitude scientifique, fondé sur les présomptions du fait de l'homme, n'apporte, toujours pas, de solutions satisfaisantes. L'étude du traitement des incertitudes dans le contentieux des produits de santé défectueux permet d'apprécier les acquis mais également les limites atteintes par l'utilisation de certains outils mis à la disposition des juges et qui se révèlent parfois inadaptés. L'intervention du législateur et la prise en compte des spécificités des produits de santé, permettraient de développer un système d'indemnisation adapté qui interviendrait de façon subsidiaire en cas d'échec de la voie contentieuse. / At a time when healthcare-product litigation is attaining record heights, the implementation into French law of the special liability regime for defective products, which derives from the European Council Directive of 25 July 1985, has led to the emergence of several grey areas of uncertainty which have a direct impact on the outcome of claims for compensation. Areas of material uncertainty have, for the most part, been effectively dealt with through the combined application of case law and the intervention of the legislator. While classic legal tools such as presumption and alternative causality provide a means to resolve a non-negligible part of these uncertainties, judges have also endeavoured to develop new tools, such as risk/utility test and market-share liability. Still, although the development of these legal tools - better suited as they are to the specific features of healthcare products - provide an effective solution to resolving areas of material uncertainty, the treatment of scientific uncertainty, which is based on presumptions of fact, does not always provide satisfactory solutions. The study of the legal treatment of uncertainty in healthcare-product litigation provides a means to assess the benefits but also the limitations of certain tools that are now available to judges but which at times prove inadequate. Intervention on the part of the legislator, while at the same time taking into account the specific features of healthcare products, could lead to the development of a suitable compensation system that could afford relief when litigation fails.