Diss. (sammanfattning) Linköping : Univ., 2001. / Härtill 5 uppsatser.

A sensibilização comportamental é caracterizada por aumento no efeito comportamental de uma droga após administrações repetidas. Este fenômeno é intensamente aplicado em estudos com modelos animais que enfocam a dependência de drogas. A maioria destas drogas promove adaptações em sistemas de neurotransmissão, (ex. sistema dopaminérgico), como é o caso da anfetamina, morfina e etanol. No entanto, estudos que avaliam os efeitos de drogas administradas durante a abstinência e posterior expressão de sensibilização comportamental são escassos. Neste trabalho avaliou-se as influências de um inibidor seletivo da monoamino-oxidase tipo-B (selegilina, 10mg/Kg) na sensibilização comportamental para anfetamina (2mg/Kg) observada em camundongos. Os resultados mostraram que o tratamento crônico com anfetamina promoveu sensibilização comportamental, efeito também observado no tratamento com selegilina, o qual resultou em sensibilização prévia para a anfetamina, além de potencializar os efeitos desta. Evidenciou-se também que a sensibilização comportamental não é um processo dependente dos níveis de corticosterona. O tratamento agudo com selegilina reduziu a atividade locomotora observada em campo aberto devido a hipotensão e bradicardia causadas pela mesma. Além disso, a selegilina agudamente também causou diminuição nos níveis de coticosterona motivo pelo qual é utilizada em clínica veterinária para o tratamento da Síndrome de Cushing. O tratamento agudo com anfetamina promoveu aumento no parâmetro comportamental, evidenciando seu efeito estimulante, mas não causou hipertensão. / The behavior sensitization is defined by a progressive enhancement of the behavioral response after repeated treatments. This phenomenon is intensely applied in studies with animal models that focus drug addiction. The majority of these drugs promote adaptations in neurotransmission (ex. dopaminergic system) as is the case of amphetamine, morphine and ethanol. However, studies which evaluate the drugs effects during abstinence and the induction of behavioral sensitization are scarce. In the present study we evaluated the influences of a selective inhibitor monoamine oxidase type-B (selegiline, 10mg/Kg) in the behavioral sensitization for amphetamine (2mg/Kg) in mice. The results shown that the chronic treatment with amphetamine promoted behavioral sensitization, like selegiline treatment that results in previous sensitization for amphetamine therefore potentiate the effects of this drug. Showed up that behavioral sensitization is not dependent process of the levels of corticosterone. The acute treatment with selegiline reduced the locomotor activity in open field test because of hypotension and decrease in heart rate. Another important acute effect of selegiline is the decrease in corticosterone levels; this is the cause that this drug is using in treatment of Cushing syndrome in veterinary. The acute treatment with amphetamine promoted increase in the locomotor activity, showing this stimulant effect but did not show effects in the blood pressure.

A sensibilização comportamental é caracterizada por aumento no efeito comportamental de uma droga após administrações repetidas. Este fenômeno é intensamente aplicado em estudos com modelos animais que enfocam a dependência de drogas. A maioria destas drogas promove adaptações em sistemas de neurotransmissão, (ex. sistema dopaminérgico), como é o caso da anfetamina, morfina e etanol. No entanto, estudos que avaliam os efeitos de drogas administradas durante a abstinência e posterior expressão de sensibilização comportamental são escassos. Neste trabalho avaliou-se as influências de um inibidor seletivo da monoamino-oxidase tipo-B (selegilina, 10mg/Kg) na sensibilização comportamental para anfetamina (2mg/Kg) observada em camundongos. Os resultados mostraram que o tratamento crônico com anfetamina promoveu sensibilização comportamental, efeito também observado no tratamento com selegilina, o qual resultou em sensibilização prévia para a anfetamina, além de potencializar os efeitos desta. Evidenciou-se também que a sensibilização comportamental não é um processo dependente dos níveis de corticosterona. O tratamento agudo com selegilina reduziu a atividade locomotora observada em campo aberto devido a hipotensão e bradicardia causadas pela mesma. Além disso, a selegilina agudamente também causou diminuição nos níveis de coticosterona motivo pelo qual é utilizada em clínica veterinária para o tratamento da Síndrome de Cushing. O tratamento agudo com anfetamina promoveu aumento no parâmetro comportamental, evidenciando seu efeito estimulante, mas não causou hipertensão. / The behavior sensitization is defined by a progressive enhancement of the behavioral response after repeated treatments. This phenomenon is intensely applied in studies with animal models that focus drug addiction. The majority of these drugs promote adaptations in neurotransmission (ex. dopaminergic system) as is the case of amphetamine, morphine and ethanol. However, studies which evaluate the drugs effects during abstinence and the induction of behavioral sensitization are scarce. In the present study we evaluated the influences of a selective inhibitor monoamine oxidase type-B (selegiline, 10mg/Kg) in the behavioral sensitization for amphetamine (2mg/Kg) in mice. The results shown that the chronic treatment with amphetamine promoted behavioral sensitization, like selegiline treatment that results in previous sensitization for amphetamine therefore potentiate the effects of this drug. Showed up that behavioral sensitization is not dependent process of the levels of corticosterone. The acute treatment with selegiline reduced the locomotor activity in open field test because of hypotension and decrease in heart rate. Another important acute effect of selegiline is the decrease in corticosterone levels; this is the cause that this drug is using in treatment of Cushing syndrome in veterinary. The acute treatment with amphetamine promoted increase in the locomotor activity, showing this stimulant effect but did not show effects in the blood pressure.

The high rise in the population suffering from depression depicts the need for improved and highly effective treatment options for this condition. Efforts to develop existing drugs into user-friendly dosage forms with a number of advantages in major depressive states, including but not limited to: sustained drug release, reduced drug dosing frequency, improved tolerance and adherence, suitability for use in diverse populations and different treatment scenarios, as well as less central nervous system side effects are required. One such non-invasive drug delivery route that could provide the aforementioned benefits in the treatment of depression is the transdermal route. A number of conventional and emerging transdermal delivery strategies have been investigated for some potent antidepressants and results depict the potential of this route as a viable means for systemic delivery of therapeutically relevant doses of the tested agents, with Emsam®, the commercially available patch of selegiline, being an evidence for the same. The investigated approaches include the formulation of transdermal patches, use of vesicular drug carriers, pro-drug approach, microemulsification, chemical as well as physical enhancement technologies. This review provides a comprehensive account of the rationale, developments made till date, scope and future prospects of delivering antidepressants via the transdermal1 route of administration.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacy)) - Rhodes University, 2008.

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by a profound loss of dopaminergic neurons from the substantia nigra (SN). Among the many pathogenic mechanisms thought to be responsible for the demise of these cells, dopamine (DA)-dependent oxidative stress and oxidative damage has taken center stage due to extensive experimental evidence showing that DA-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidized DA metabolites are toxic to SN neurons. Despite its being the most efficacious drug for symptom reversal in PD, there is concern that levodopa (LD) may contribute to the neuronal degeneration and progression of PD by enhancing DA concentrations and turnover in surviving dopaminergic neurons. The present study investigates the potential neurotoxic and neuroprotective effects of DA in vitro. These effects are compared to the toxicity and neuroprotective effects observed in the rat striatum after the administration of LD and selegiline (SEL), both of which increase striatal DA levels. The effects of exogenous LD and/or SEL administration on both the oxidative stress caused by increased striatal iron (II) levels and its consequences have also been investigated. 6-Hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) is a potent neurotoxin used to mimic dopaminergic degeneration in animal models of PD. The formation of 6-OHDA in vivo could destroy central dopaminergic nerve terminals and enhance the progression of PD. Inorganic studies using high performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD) show that hydroxyl radicals can react with DA to form 6-OHDA in vitro. SEL results in a significant decrease in the formation of 6-OHDA in vitro, probably as a result of its antioxidant properties. However, the exogenous administration of LD, with or without SEL, either does not lead to the formation of striatal 6-OHDA in vivo or produces concentrations below the detection limit of the assay. This is despite the fact that striatal DA levels in these rats are significantly elevated (two-fold) compared to the control group. The auto-oxidation and monoamine oxidase (MAO)-mediated metabolism of DA causes an increase in the production of superoxide anions in whole rat brain homogenate in vitro. In addition to this, DA is able to enhance the production of hydroxyl radicals by Fenton chemistry (Fe(III)-EDTA/H2O2) in a cell free environment. Treatment with systemic LD elevates the production of striatal superoxide anions, but does not lead to a detectable increase in striatal hydroxyl radical production in vivo. The co-adminstration of SEL with LD is able to prevent the LD induced rise in striatal superoxide levels. It has been found that the presence of DA or 6-OHDA is able to reduce lipid peroxidation in whole rat brain homogenate induced by Fe(II)-EDTA/H2O2 and ascorbate (Fenton system). However, DA and 6-OHDA increase protein oxidation in rat brain homogenate, which is further increased in the presence of the Fenton system. In addition to this, the incubation of rat brain homogenate with DA or 6-OHDA is also accompanied by a significant reduction in the total GSH content of the homogenate. The exogenous administration of LD and/or SEL was found to have no detrimental effects on striatal lipids, proteins or total GSH levels. Systemic LD administration actually had a neuroprotective effect in the striatum by inhibiting iron (II) induced lipid peroxidation. Inorganic studies, including electrochemistry and the ferrozine assay show that DA and 6-OHDA are able to release iron from ferritin, as iron (II), and that DA can bind iron (III), a fact that may easily impede the availability of this metal ion for participation in the Fenton reaction. The binding of iron (III) by DA appears to discard the involvement of the Fenton reaction in the increased production of hydroxyl radicals induced by the addition of DA to mixtures containing Fe(II)-EDTA and hydrogen peroxide. 6-OHDA did not form a metal-ligand complex with iron (II) or iron (III). In addition to the antioxidant activity and MAO-B inhibitory activity of SEL, the iron binding studies show that SEL has weak iron (II) chelating activity and that it can also form complexes with iron (III). This may therefore be another mechanism involved in the neuroprotective action of SEL. The results of the pineal indole metabolism study show that the systemic administration of SEL increases the production of N-acetylserotonin (NAS) by the pineal gland. NAS has been demonstrated to be a potent antioxidant in the brain and protects against 6-OHDA induced toxicity. The results of this study show that DA displays antioxidant properties in relation to lipid eroxidation and exhibits pro-oxidant properties by causing an increase in the production of hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions, as well as protein oxidation and a loss of total GSH content. Despite the toxic effects of DA in vitro, the treatment of rats with exogenous LD does not cause oxidative stress or oxidative damage. The results also show that LD and SEL have some neuroprotective properties which make these agents useful in the treatment of PD.

INTRODUCTION: Smoking is one of the single greatest causes of numerous preventable diseases. We were interested in developing an animal model of nicotine metabolism that can be used to examine the effects of potential CYP2A6 inhibitors on nicotine metabolism and nicotine-mediated behaviours. Pharmacogenetic studies have demonstrated that in humans, smoking behaviour is associated with rates of nicotine metabolism by the CYP2A6 enzyme. Mouse CYP2A5 shares structural and functional similarities to human CYP2A6 and has been implicated in nicotine self-administration behaviours in mice, therefore the mouse represents a potential animal model for studying nicotine metabolism. METHODS: We characterized nicotine and cotinine metabolism in two commonly used mouse strains (DBA/2 and C57Bl/6). We also examined the association between nicotine self-administration behaviours and nicotine metabolism, and the impact of direct manipulation (i.e. inhibition) of nicotine metabolism on nicotine pharmacodynamics (hot-plate and tail-flick tests) in mice. Finally, we studied the effect of selegiline (a known cytochrome P450 mechanism-based inhibitor) on nicotine metabolism in mice and in human CYP2A6. RESULTS: Nicotine metabolism in mice in vitro was mediated by CYP2A5, and this enzyme was responsible for over 70% and 90% of the metabolism of nicotine to cotinine and cotinine to 3-hydroxycotinine as shown by immuno-inhibition studies, respectively. A polymorphism in CYP2A5 between mouse strains, known to alter the probe substrate coumarin’s metabolism, did not affect nicotine metabolism but dramatically altered cotinine metabolism. Nicotine self-administration behaviour in mice was associated with level of hepatic CYP2A5 proteins and rates of nicotine metabolism in male mice. In inhibition studies, the CYP2A5/6 inhibitor methoxsalen inhibited both in vitro and in vivo nicotine metabolism in mice and substantially increased the anti-nociceptive effect of nicotine. Finally, selegiline was found to be an inhibitor of CYP2A5 decreasing nicotine metabolism in vitro and in vivo in mice. Moreover, we showed that selegiline is a mechanism-based inhibitor of CYP2A6 inhibiting nicotine metabolism irreversibly. CONCLUSION: The above data suggested that the mouse model may be suitable for examining the impact of inhibition (and genetic variation) on nicotine metabolism and nicotine-mediated behaviours and may potentially be used to screen for novel inhibitors of nicotine metabolism.

INTRODUCTION: Smoking is one of the single greatest causes of numerous preventable diseases. We were interested in developing an animal model of nicotine metabolism that can be used to examine the effects of potential CYP2A6 inhibitors on nicotine metabolism and nicotine-mediated behaviours. Pharmacogenetic studies have demonstrated that in humans, smoking behaviour is associated with rates of nicotine metabolism by the CYP2A6 enzyme. Mouse CYP2A5 shares structural and functional similarities to human CYP2A6 and has been implicated in nicotine self-administration behaviours in mice, therefore the mouse represents a potential animal model for studying nicotine metabolism. METHODS: We characterized nicotine and cotinine metabolism in two commonly used mouse strains (DBA/2 and C57Bl/6). We also examined the association between nicotine self-administration behaviours and nicotine metabolism, and the impact of direct manipulation (i.e. inhibition) of nicotine metabolism on nicotine pharmacodynamics (hot-plate and tail-flick tests) in mice. Finally, we studied the effect of selegiline (a known cytochrome P450 mechanism-based inhibitor) on nicotine metabolism in mice and in human CYP2A6. RESULTS: Nicotine metabolism in mice in vitro was mediated by CYP2A5, and this enzyme was responsible for over 70% and 90% of the metabolism of nicotine to cotinine and cotinine to 3-hydroxycotinine as shown by immuno-inhibition studies, respectively. A polymorphism in CYP2A5 between mouse strains, known to alter the probe substrate coumarin’s metabolism, did not affect nicotine metabolism but dramatically altered cotinine metabolism. Nicotine self-administration behaviour in mice was associated with level of hepatic CYP2A5 proteins and rates of nicotine metabolism in male mice. In inhibition studies, the CYP2A5/6 inhibitor methoxsalen inhibited both in vitro and in vivo nicotine metabolism in mice and substantially increased the anti-nociceptive effect of nicotine. Finally, selegiline was found to be an inhibitor of CYP2A5 decreasing nicotine metabolism in vitro and in vivo in mice. Moreover, we showed that selegiline is a mechanism-based inhibitor of CYP2A6 inhibiting nicotine metabolism irreversibly. CONCLUSION: The above data suggested that the mouse model may be suitable for examining the impact of inhibition (and genetic variation) on nicotine metabolism and nicotine-mediated behaviours and may potentially be used to screen for novel inhibitors of nicotine metabolism.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Monoamines appear to play an important modulatory role on pain descending pathways and are involved in the antinociceptive mechanism of several drugs commonly used for the management of pain. In this study, we assessed the involvement of monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B), a key enzyme implicated in monoamine metabolism, on models of postsurgical and neuropathic pain in mice. For this purpose, we evaluated the effects of the selective and irreversible MAO-B inhibitor selegiline on mechanical sensitivity and ex vivo MAO-B activity in different central nervous system regions in mice submitted to incisional and partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSNL) pain models. Mice subjected to plantar incision showed a significant decrease in mechanical threshold when compared with sham-operated mice, characterizing the development of mechanical allodynia. Selegiline, at a dose sufficient to inhibit selectively the MAO-B activity (10 mg/kg), showed an anti-allodynic effect from 0.5 until 6 h after incision. The MAO-B activity was not altered in incision submitted mice when compared with sham-operated animals in any analyzed structure. Likewise, PSNL submitted mice also developed mechanical allodynia, which was reversed by selegiline (10 mg/kg) from 2 until 6 h after treatment. In addition, a significant increase on striatal MAO-B activity was observed in mice subjected to PSNL when compared with sham-operated animals, which was reversed by selegiline treatment. Taken together, our results showed that selegiline presented an antinociceptive effect on mice models of both acute and chronic pain, suggesting a potential involvement of MAO-B on pain mechanisms. / As monoaminas possuem uma função modulatória importante nas vias descendentes do controle da dor e estão envolvidas no mecanismo antinociceptivo de diversos fármacos comumente utilizados no tratamento de síndromes dolorosas. Nesse estudo, nós avaliamos a participação da monoamina oxidase B (MAO-B), uma enzima chave envolvida no metabolismo das monoaminas, em modelos de dor pós-operatória e neuropática em camundongos. Para esse propósito, foram avaliados os efeitos da selegilina, um inibidor seletivo e irreversível da MAO-B, na sensibilidade mecânica e na atividade ex vivo da MAO-B em diferentes regiões do sistema nervoso central (córtex cerebral, estriado e medula espinhal) de camundongos submetidos à incisão plantar ou à ligação parcial do nervo ciático (PSNL). Os camundongos que foram submetidos à incisão plantar apresentaram uma diminuição significativa no limiar mecânico quando comparados aos animais falso-operados, caracterizando o desenvolvimento de alodínia mecânica. Tanto o pré quanto o pós-tratamento com selegilina, em uma dose capaz de inibir seletivamente a atividade da MAO-B (10 mg/kg, p.o.), apresentaram efeito anti-alodínico a partir de 0,5 até 6 h após o tratamento. A atividade da MAO-B, medida 4 h após o procedimento cirúrgico, não foi alterada nos camundongos submetidos à incisão quando comparada com a atividade dos animais falso-operados em nenhuma das estruturas analisadas. Os camundongos submetidos à PSNL também desenvolveram alodínia mecânica, a qual foi revertida pela selegilina (10 mg/kg, p.o.) de 2 até 6 h após o tratamento. Além disso, os camundongos submetidos à PSNL apresentaram um aumento significativo na atividade da MAO-B no estriado 4 h após o tratamento, o qual foi revertido pela selegilina. Foi observado também que a selegilina, em uma dose sem efeito antinociceptivo (1 mg/kg, p.o.) em ambos os modelos de dor utilizados, não foi capaz de inibir a atividade da MAO-B. Nossos resultados mostram que a selegilina apresentou um efeito antinociceptivo tanto em um modelo de dor aguda quanto em um modelo de dor crônica, sugerindo um possível envolvimento da MAO-B nos mecanismos da dor.