Negotiation poses a unique challenge in the modern workplace which is likely to be especially difficult for socially anxious individuals. Previous research has shown that externally focused attention strategies are useful at alleviating social anxiety symptoms and in helping improve negotiation outcomes; however this intervention has never been examined amongst socially anxious negotiators. This study examined the effect of external- and self-focused attention manipulations on anxiety, perspective (observer-field), and monetary negotiation outcomes. Thirty-eight high social anxiety (HSA) and 52 low social anxiety (LSA) female participants completed a dyadic negotiation simulation with a partner. The external-focus manipulation was successful at increasing attention focus in the desired direction, while the self-focus manipulation was not and, thus, was discarded from subsequent analyses. Results demonstrated that externally focused attention resulted in significant decreases in state anxiety during the negotiation and a significant shift in perspective from observer to field, for participants in both the HSA and LSA groups. However, these changes did not translate into better objective negotiation performance, as measured by the total commission (i.e., money) earned. The implications of the results for social anxiety and the development of workplace intervention programs are discussed.

Negotiation poses a unique challenge in the modern workplace which is likely to be especially difficult for socially anxious individuals. Previous research has shown that externally focused attention strategies are useful at alleviating social anxiety symptoms and in helping improve negotiation outcomes; however this intervention has never been examined amongst socially anxious negotiators. This study examined the effect of external- and self-focused attention manipulations on anxiety, perspective (observer-field), and monetary negotiation outcomes. Thirty-eight high social anxiety (HSA) and 52 low social anxiety (LSA) female participants completed a dyadic negotiation simulation with a partner. The external-focus manipulation was successful at increasing attention focus in the desired direction, while the self-focus manipulation was not and, thus, was discarded from subsequent analyses. Results demonstrated that externally focused attention resulted in significant decreases in state anxiety during the negotiation and a significant shift in perspective from observer to field, for participants in both the HSA and LSA groups. However, these changes did not translate into better objective negotiation performance, as measured by the total commission (i.e., money) earned. The implications of the results for social anxiety and the development of workplace intervention programs are discussed.

Attention training (AT) is a therapeutic intervention developed by Adrian Wells that involves the training of attentional skills to treat emotional disorders (Wells, 1990). This study investigated whether the AT technique works as theorised to reduce anxiety and other symptoms by reducing self-focus. In a laboratory setting, seventy-one student participants were exposed to a single session of either an AT analogue or a control treatment to see if AT would reduce their self-focus and vulnerability to a subsequent stressor task. AT was not found to decrease self-focus or reduce vulnerability to the stressor. In addition, self-esteem (SE) and social anxiety were investigated as potential moderators of the relationship between AT and/or self-focus on vulnerability to the stressor. Prior research has shown that SE level and self-focus interact such that self-focus predicts vulnerability to anxiety in people with low SE, but not in those with high SE. In this study we also examined SE range, a measure we developed here to reflect the range within which a person’s state SE fluctuates over time. The results indicated that self-focus is related to increased vulnerability in those with low SE or a large SE range, but decreased vulnerability in those with high SE or a small SE range. This supports theorising that self-focus activates people’s self-beliefs, which then influence how they respond during potentially threatening experiences. The findings also support the recommendation that SE range be subjected to further evaluation.

Self-focused information processing has become a central aspect of cognitive explanations of social anxiety disorder. Indeed, Clark and Wells (1995) theorized that the key feature of the disorder is the processing of the self as a social object. It is proposed that when socially anxious individuals enter feared situations, they shift their attention to a detailed monitoring of themselves. Such self-focused attention triggers recollections of negative experiences from the past and directs attention towards signs of threat. This interferes with the processing of the situation and leads to misinterpretation of others' behaviours. Although there is now considerable support for the Clark and Wells' model from research on imagery, post-event and anticipatory processing, there is surprisingly little evidence for memory disturbance. Unlike mood disorders, to date, deficits in accessing autobiographical memories have not been found for social anxiety. In this thesis it is argued that a possible reason for the lack of evidence of memory deficits in social anxiety is that researchers have not attempted to manipulate participants' levels of self-focus in conducting research on autobiographical memory. The focus of this thesis was on the accessibility and quality of the autobiographical memories of socially anxious and non-socially anxious individuals obtained under conditions of self-focus in comparison to responses obtained when not self-focused. The present research utilized a two-phase quasi-experimental design with a sample of 144 adults taken from an initial pool of 203 volunteers. The final sample comprised 30 men and 114 women, ranging in age from 17 to 67 years (M = 26, SD = 11.91, median age = 20 years). The sample consisted of 292 undergraduates and community participants recruited via advertisements. Group membership was based on selection criteria from a measure of social anxiety, the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI; Turner, Beidel, Dancu & Stanley, 1989b), depression and general anxiety from the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995), and the anxiety disorder interview schedule (ADIS-IV-L; Di Nardo, Brown & Barlow, 1994). Initial respondents were allocated to socially anxious (SA), socially anxious depressed (SAD), and non-socially anxious (NSA) groups, with the SAD group forming a further control group of respondents with high scores in SPAI social anxiety and DASS depression. Approximately half of each group was primed to Self-focus, by making an impromptu speech which was videotaped and replayed to each participant individually, following an adaptation of a priming methodology by Perowne and Mansell (2002). The other half of the participants was not self-focused. Rather, they viewed video tape of a confederate giving a speech so as to Other-focus. The priming was prior to participants' provision of written responses to positive and negative (social anxiety) cue words using Williams' (2002) Autobiographical Memory Test. The quality of the memories was measured according to overgenerality for positive and negative cues. Reaction time was recorded for memories to the same valenced cues. The incidence of anxiety and depression content in the memories was determined using coding schemes devised by Gottschalk and Gleser (1969). As hypothesised, the results confirmed that greater levels of generality and longer reaction time to positive cues (not for negative cues) were evident when comparing self-focused SA with self-focused non-socially anxious (NSA) individuals, reflecting findings for other emotional disorders such as depression. Self-focused socially anxious (SA) individuals responded with greater levels of generality and longer reaction times for memories for valenced cues, particularly positive ones, than other-focused SA individuals. Further analysis for generality found that self-focused SA respondents were more general than other-focused socially anxious with comorbid depression (SAD) individuals for memories for positive cues. However, both groups were similar for negative memory cues. As confirmation for memory deficits as a function of the priming manipulation, greater generality and longer reaction times for memories for positive cues occurred when comparing self-focused SA individuals, to all control groups (NSA groups and other-focused SAD individuals). Without priming, SA individuals did not demonstrate autobiographical memory deficits in quality or accessibility compared to NSA controls. Exploration of the autobiographical memory content indicated that SA (compared to SAD and NSA) individuals, irrespective of focus, reported more depression than anxiety content in their memories. Additionally, self-focused SA in contrast to other-focused SA individuals, experienced heightened depression content in their memories, although none of the individual categories of depression was prominent. Predictions of SPAI social anxiety and DASS depression scores from the significant predictors associated with the memories, were undertaken separately for self- and other-focused individuals. Reaction time to positive cues was found to be the only stable predictor of both social anxiety and depression for the self-focused respondents. For the other-focused condition, only total anxiety content theme was found to predict social anxiety, albeit poorly. Overall, the present thesis established that the self-focusing manipulation unearthed a memory processing deficit in socially anxious individuals, similar to that found in most emotional disorders in terms of quality, accessibility, and content, of the memories. This result was particularly apparent in relation to responses to positive cues. The findings are consistent with the Clark and Wells' (1995) model of the disorder emphasising the role of the views of the self as the core element of the disorder. The results also show that the processing deficits of social anxious individuals are confined to the self-focus condition. It is suggested that more attention should be placed on the self-role in social anxiety and that mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, efficacious in mood disorders by reducing the overgenerality effects, is also relevant to social anxiety disorder. Future longitudinal research should be conducted with clinical groups of socially anxious patients, using a self-focus manipulation, to ascertain if the results of the present can be replicated and extended. Pre- and post-treatment measurements of the autobiographical memories of socially anxious patients should be measured and compared, to ascertain whether the deficits can be repaired through the use of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT; Williams, Teasdale, Segal & Soulsby, 2000). Self-focus priming could also be used with other anxiety disordered individuals such as generalised anxiety disorder and panic individuals, as they too, appear to be likely candidates for the ruminative self-focus which has contributed to the memory processing deficits established in the autobiographical memories in social anxiety disorder.

This thesis examines the moderating effect of dispositional reinvestment upon ‘choking’ in cognitive based tasks such as decision-making. Study 1 tested sixty-three participants’ performances on low- and high-complexity tests of motor skill, psychomotor skill and working memory under low- and high-pressure conditions. The association between reinvestment and choking was shown to extend beyond the motor skill domain to cognitive tasks, particularly those that tax working memory, with task complexity moderating this relationship. Next, a psychometric scale to identify individuals more susceptible to impaired decision-making under pressure was developed. A 13-item decision-specific version of the Reinvestment Scale (Masters, Polman, & Hammond, 1993) measuring an individual’s propensity to engage in conscious control and manifestations of ruminative thoughts emerged following factor analysis. Initial assessment of the scale’s predictive validity showed scores were highly correlated with coaches’ ratings of players’ tendency to choke. The final two studies examined choking using sport specific decision-making tasks. Initial findings were inconclusive, as choking was not observed. It was suggested the task lacked the sufficient cognitive demands to induce reinvestment. The last study, manipulating task complexity, found dispositional reinvestment to be associated with choking in the high complexity condition. The Decision-Specific Reinvestment Scale was also shown to be a better predictor of choking than the original scale. Overall, support was found for the hypothesis that Reinvestment is detrimental to performance under pressure in cognitive based tasks; however may not be the sole cause of disrupted performance. Masters and Maxwell’s (2004) concept of a working memory based explanation and Mullen and Hardy (2000) attentional threshold hypothesis offer a potential explanation to the findings.

Mindfulness-based practices are associated with increased attentional qualities, improved self-focus styles, enhanced empathic understanding, and strengthened self-compassion, making these practices a viable addition to counselor training programs. However, current mindfulness training models are primarily designed for relief of psychological distress, stress reduction, and increased well-being rather than focused on enhancing therapeutic skills and require intensive time commitments that may present logistical difficulties for overburdened curricula and graduate students. This study piloted an on-line, eight-week mindfulness-based practices learning management system for counselors (MBLMS-C) with a specific focus on the cultivation of qualities associated with successful therapeutic relationships. Ten of forty-six recruited counseling master's students enrolled in their first basic skills course at a sample of accredited universities across the United States completed the exit survey. Data were analyzed using multivariate repeated measures analyses comparing pre- post- counselor relational qualities of mindfulness traits, empathy, self-focus style, and self-compassion. Results indicated no statistically significant difference with a partial ?2 = .73. What-if analyses (N = 30) indicated statistical significance may have been obtained given a larger sample. Variance was explained by increased self-compassion (partial ?2 = .34) and mindfulness traits (partial ?2 = .31) and decreased self-focus style rumination (partial ?2 = .23) and empathic personal distress (partial ?2 = .12). Changes were observed in the desired direction for self-focus style reflection and empathic perspective taking/empathic concern. Discussion includes a review of the findings including examination of participant feedback regarding training experience. Study limitations and implications for counselor education, professional enhancement, and suggestions for future research are also offered.

In this study, effects of facial self-reflection and complexity of self on physiological responses were investigated. Skin conductance levels were measured during baseline and neutral conditions, then under a self-focusing condition provided by mirror reflection of the face. Subjects completed measures of self-complexity, depressive affect, self-esteem, anxiety and body image satisfaction. Eye tracking data was collected during the mirror condition. Results showed a significant effect of mirror self-reflection on physiological reactivity as measured by differences between mirror and baseline mean responses. Pre-test depressive affect was correlated with low self-esteem but not with self-complexity. Self-complexity was negatively correlated with orientation to physical appearance and positively correlated with greater differences between baseline and mirror mean reactivity. Self-complexity and depressive affect did not significantly predict physiological reactivity, although a trend was found for the influence of each variable. Post-hoc analyses showed significant group differences for both self-complexity and depressive affect on physiological reactivity, although the influence of self-complexity was in the unexpected direction. Results of this study are consistent with general findings that negative self-esteem, anxiety and depression are strongly correlated. In addition, a strong correlation was found between negative self-esteem and dissociative symptoms. Exploratory analyses of eye tracking data found no significant relations among personality variables and percent of time looking at facial image, although some trends were found. Trends for a relation of self-complexity with time looking at facial image, negative evaluation of appearance in the mirror, and less focus on physical appearance suggest a component in the domain of self-complexity related to physical appearance. Clearly, self-complexity has a number of interrelated dimensions and remains a challenging area of study. In addition, the combination of eye tracking and physiological measurement is a relatively new area of study that shows promise for continued investigation.

本研究主要目的，為透過操弄自我聚焦注意來探討高社交焦慮者在社交評估情境中的心像反應，並釐清心像內涵與形成視野以及對焦慮情緒的影響。過去對於高社會焦慮者的負向自我心像，究竟是在社會威脅情境下，就會自發性的發生；還是只有在高社會焦慮者具有自我聚焦注意時，才會發生，目前尚未有實徵研究的探討，此為本研究最主要的研究目的。 本研究篩選出高社交焦慮組37人與低社交焦慮組36人參加實驗，受試者在接受所分派的自我聚焦注意操弄後，進行社交評估作業，並針對內在心像的內容進行進一步的調查。 研究結果發現，接受自我聚焦注意操弄的高社交焦慮者，其心像內容明顯充滿較高比例的負向訊息，且在實驗前後的焦慮情緒改變也相對較高，而未接受自我聚焦注意操弄的高社交焦慮組，以及兩組低社交焦慮組皆未觀察到較高的負向心像內容，在呈現形式以及焦慮情緒上亦無顯著的差別。 高社交焦慮者的自我心像會受到當下注意力投注狀態的影響，當越處於自我聚焦的狀態下，其心像的內容也充滿越多的負面訊息，心像呈現的方式也越傾向以被他人所觀察的形式。由於自我聚焦注意在社交焦慮症狀發展與維持上扮演相當重要的角色，故在釐清高社交焦慮者在自我聚焦注意下的心像內容，有助於選擇適當的治療策略，協助高社交焦慮者因應環境中的威脅。 / This study aimed to explore the imagery of high social anxious individuals in the social-evaluative context by manipulating self-focused attention , and also attempted to clarify the content of the imagery, the perspective formed by the context, and the influence on the anxiety emotion. The past studies on the issues of whether the negative self-imagery of high social anxious individuals spontaneously occurred in a social threat context or only occurred in the self-focused attention have not carried out any empirical research so far, and thus it is the main research purpose of this study. In this study, 37 high and 36 low social anxious individuals were selected to conduct the experiment. After being manipulated the self-focused attention according to the groups to which they had been assigned, the participants had to engage in a social evaluation task, and a further investigation would be undertaken according to their content of inner imagery obtained in the task. The research results showed that high social anxious individuals being manipulated the self-focused attention apparently had a higher proportion of negative messages in their content of imagery and also had a relatively higher change in their anxiety emotion before and after the experiment. On the contrast, no higher proportion of negative messages in the content of imagery was observed in the group of high social anxious individuals that were not being manipulated the self-focused attention and in other two groups of low social anxious individuals. Similarly, there were no significant differences in the forms presented and the anxiety emotion in those groups as well. The inner imagery of high social anxious individuals would be influenced by the present status of the focus of attention. While in a higher self-focused attention, the content of imagery tends to be more negative, and tends to be observer perspective.