The friction of tyres on roads has been of practical importance for many years with nearly 80% of terrestrial traffic making use of rubber tyres. Tyres provide the grip required for vehicle acceleration, braking and cornering. In order for a tyre to grip on a snow covered surface friction mechanisms such as “ploughing”, (where sharp tread block edges dig into and break bonds between the snow grains) and fluid film lubrication must be considered. These are not present when a tyre interacts with tarmac. In addition metamorphism of the snow over time can result in variations of the structure and mechanical properties, this can occur rapidly especially when dealing with temperatures close to snows melting point. When full car-scale outdoor testing is carried out the snow conditions cannot be controlled and vary daily. This means the snow properties must be measured every day so that any observed variations in friction can be attributed to the tyres rather than the snow. At present the simple measurements being carried out on the snow tracks have not proved sufficient to pick up on the variations in the snow. This leads to inconsistent results: one tyre behaves differently on two different days, even though the snow was measured to be the same. This has resulted in the need for further study of the way snow variations influence the grip of winter tyres. The primary aim of this study is to identify which snow properties contribute to the friction of tyres on snow and be able to estimate the friction from measurements of snow properties. This work is the first comprehensive study to combine: multiple snow properties, microstructure characterisation, measurement of friction behaviour and different snow (both artificial and natural). In order to study the way snow affects the grip of winter tyres, methods of manufacturing artificial snow with consistent mechanical properties and microstructure are used. A method of blending ice chips (a solid state fracturing process) and compressing the resulting snow to form a test track was developed during a previous PhD carried out in our group. An alternate snow microstructure was created by using an established process of creating snow by vapour deposition. The process was simplified and downscaled, the resulting snow consisted of large dendritic grains, very different to the blended ice chips. Both snows were pressed in identical manners to create snow testing tracks. In addition, natural snow collected from the field was tested to compare with the artificial snow. In order to investigate how the variations in the snow affected the friction of tyres extensive testing was carried out in a cold room using a linear tribometer, using procedures established in previous studies. Two analytical rubber samples were used to investigate the friction, a rounded edge sample and a siped sample. Testing was carried out at -10°C at speeds of 0.01m/s, 0.1m/s and 1m/s. A significant part of this PhD involved the development of new methods and equipment which have not been used to study snow in this way before. In order to characterise mechanical properties, shear testing, compression testing and cohesion testing were carried out. To investigate snow microstructure, surface profilometry, microscopy and X-ray microtomography were used. Correlating the changes observed in snow characteristics with the changes recorded in the coefficient of friction has allowed the development of an empirical equation. This can be used to predict the coefficient of friction of a given snow based on three relatively simple snow measurements: a compression test to calculate the effective modulus, a roughness measurement to calculate the peak count density and a snow penetration test. For the first time this study allows us to use the empirical equation to estimate the relative contributions of the ploughing and surface friction mechanisms to the total friction. This allows the comparison of full car-scale test data as it is now possible to account for variations in the snow test tracks.

The significance of the polar regions for the Earth’s climate system and their observed amplified response to climate change indicate the necessity for high temporal and spatial coverage for the monitoring of the reflective properties of snow surfaces and their influencing factors. Therefore, the specific surface area (SSA, as a proxy for snow grain size) and the hemispherical directional reflectance factor (HDRF) of snow were measured for a 2-month period in central Antarctica (Kohnen research station) during austral summer 2013/14. The SSA data were retrieved on the basis of ground-based spectral surface albedo measurements collected by the COmpact RAdiation measurement System (CORAS) and airborne observations with the Spectral Modular Airborne Radiation measurement sysTem (SMART). The snow grain size and pollution amount (SGSP) algorithm, originally developed to analyze spaceborne reflectance measurements by the MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), was modified in order to reduce the impact of the solar zenith angle on the retrieval results and to cover measurements in overcast conditions. Spectral ratios of surface albedo at 1280 and 1100 nm wavelength were used to reduce the retrieval uncertainty. The retrieval was applied to the ground-based and airborne observations and validated against optical in situ observations of SSA utilizing an IceCube device. The SSA retrieved from CORAS observations varied between 29 and 96 m2 kg-1. Snowfall events caused distinct relative maxima of the SSA which were followed by a gradual decrease in SSA due to snow metamorphism and wind-induced transport of freshly fallen ice crystals. The ability of the modified algorithm to include measurements in overcast conditions improved the data coverage, in particular at times when precipitation events occurred and the SSA changed quickly. SSA retrieved from measurements with CORAS and MODIS agree with the in situ observations within the ranges given by the measurement uncertainties. However, SSA retrieved from the airborne SMART data underestimated the ground-based results. The spatial variability of SSA in Dronning Maud Land ranged in the same order of magnitude as the temporal variability revealing differences between coastal areas and regions in interior Antarctica. The validation presented in this study provided an unique test bed for retrievals of SSA under Antarctic conditions where in situ data are scarce and can be used for testing prognostic snowpack models in Antarctic conditions. The HDRF of snow was derived from airborne measurements of a digital 180° fish-eye camera for a variety of conditions with different surface roughness, snow grain size, and solar zenith angle. The camera provides radiance measurements with high angular resolution utilizing detailed radiometric and geometric calibrations. The comparison between smooth and rough surfaces (sastrugi) showed significant differences in the HDRF of snow, which are superimposed on the diurnal cycle. By inverting a semi-empirical kernel-driven model for the bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF), the snow HDRF was parameterized with respect to surface roughness, snow grain size, and solar zenith angle. This allows a direct comparison of the HDRF measurements with BRDF products from satellite remote sensing.

<p>Snö har en stor betydelse för oss inom hydrologin samt ekologin. Inom hydrologin har snön inverkan på våra vattendrag under vinter och vår dessutom har den en stor betydande roll för elektricitetsproduktionen via vattenkraft. För ekologin ger snön isolering för växter, marken och skydd för mindre djur arter. Snöförhållanden förklarar också ofta naturkatastrofer, så som lavinrisker och översvämningar i vattendragen. Ökad kunskap om snöegenskaper skulle kunna hjälpa oss att förstå alla ovan nämnda skeenden bättre.</p><p>På Abiskos naturvetenskapliga forskningsstation har det sedan år 1961 till nu gjorts snöprofilsmätningar, där snötäckets egenskaper, tjocklek, snölagrets täthet/hårdhet, snö kristallernas fasthet, snökornens storlek och snöns torrhet uppskattas. Dessa mätningar utgör grunden till denna studie där syftet är att klimatologiskt undersöka den inre snöstrukturen.</p><p>Undersökningen av snöns inre struktur ger oss en tydlig bild av att kategorin is förekommer mycket ofta i snötäcket och att dess tjocklek är mycket tunn. Under de senaste 15-åren (1993-2007) har kategorin is utgjorts till 25% av alla egenskaper i snötäckets översta lager. Vi kan även se att snön har blivit mycket blötare under våren för perioden 1993-2007 (senaste 15 åren) speciellt under maj månad. Att detta är klara och distinkta spår på den ökade lufttemperaturen är det inga tvivel på. Tydliga spår av metamorfosen i snötäcket ses när kategorin mycket lucker och lucker har ökat kraftigt i det understa lagret de senaste åren, något som även förklarar ökade lavinrisker i området.</p><p>Snödjupet har minskat under de senaste 15 åren (1993-2007) under hösten (oktober och november) i jämförelse med de andra två 15-års perioderna (1961-1992), men snölagrets tjocklek har däremot ökat under våren.</p> / <p>Snow is of great importance to our environment in ways such as hydrological and ecological. When speaking in terms of hydrology, snow affects our water streams and has a great influence on hydropower. In ecological purposes, snow is a good isolator for vegetation, soil and it also gives shelter for smaller animals. Snow conditions often explain natural disaster, such as risks for avalanches and submergence in the streams. Understanding the fundamentals of snow properties would give scientist a greater understanding of snow and its effects on our environment.</p><p>Snow profile measurements have been made in Abisko research centre since 1961 until present time. Measurements have been done on snow cover properties, such as the thickness of the snow layer, grain size, snow layer hardness, grain compactness and the dryness of the snow. Collected data from Abisko research centre is the foundation of this study where our objective is to analyze the inner snow structure. This will give us a greater understanding of how snow has been behaving historically.</p><p>Result of this study illustrates that category ice occurs very frequent in the snow cover and its thickness is very thin. During the last 15-years (1993-2007) has the category ice constitute up to 25% of all the properties in the snow cover in the upper layer. We can also see that the snow cover has drastically become more wet during spring specially for the month may and there is no doubt that the increased air temperature is behind it. There are also distinct signs of metamorphoses in the snow cover which can explain the increased risks for avalanches in the area.</p><p>Results also shows that the snow depth has decreased during the last 15 years (1993-2007) in autumn (October and November) in comparison with the other 15-year periods (1961-1992), but on the other hand the snow layer thickness has increased during the spring.</p>

Snö har en stor betydelse för oss inom hydrologin samt ekologin. Inom hydrologin har snön inverkan på våra vattendrag under vinter och vår dessutom har den en stor betydande roll för elektricitetsproduktionen via vattenkraft. För ekologin ger snön isolering för växter, marken och skydd för mindre djur arter. Snöförhållanden förklarar också ofta naturkatastrofer, så som lavinrisker och översvämningar i vattendragen. Ökad kunskap om snöegenskaper skulle kunna hjälpa oss att förstå alla ovan nämnda skeenden bättre. På Abiskos naturvetenskapliga forskningsstation har det sedan år 1961 till nu gjorts snöprofilsmätningar, där snötäckets egenskaper, tjocklek, snölagrets täthet/hårdhet, snö kristallernas fasthet, snökornens storlek och snöns torrhet uppskattas. Dessa mätningar utgör grunden till denna studie där syftet är att klimatologiskt undersöka den inre snöstrukturen. Undersökningen av snöns inre struktur ger oss en tydlig bild av att kategorin is förekommer mycket ofta i snötäcket och att dess tjocklek är mycket tunn. Under de senaste 15-åren (1993-2007) har kategorin is utgjorts till 25% av alla egenskaper i snötäckets översta lager. Vi kan även se att snön har blivit mycket blötare under våren för perioden 1993-2007 (senaste 15 åren) speciellt under maj månad. Att detta är klara och distinkta spår på den ökade lufttemperaturen är det inga tvivel på. Tydliga spår av metamorfosen i snötäcket ses när kategorin mycket lucker och lucker har ökat kraftigt i det understa lagret de senaste åren, något som även förklarar ökade lavinrisker i området. Snödjupet har minskat under de senaste 15 åren (1993-2007) under hösten (oktober och november) i jämförelse med de andra två 15-års perioderna (1961-1992), men snölagrets tjocklek har däremot ökat under våren. / Snow is of great importance to our environment in ways such as hydrological and ecological. When speaking in terms of hydrology, snow affects our water streams and has a great influence on hydropower. In ecological purposes, snow is a good isolator for vegetation, soil and it also gives shelter for smaller animals. Snow conditions often explain natural disaster, such as risks for avalanches and submergence in the streams. Understanding the fundamentals of snow properties would give scientist a greater understanding of snow and its effects on our environment. Snow profile measurements have been made in Abisko research centre since 1961 until present time. Measurements have been done on snow cover properties, such as the thickness of the snow layer, grain size, snow layer hardness, grain compactness and the dryness of the snow. Collected data from Abisko research centre is the foundation of this study where our objective is to analyze the inner snow structure. This will give us a greater understanding of how snow has been behaving historically. Result of this study illustrates that category ice occurs very frequent in the snow cover and its thickness is very thin. During the last 15-years (1993-2007) has the category ice constitute up to 25% of all the properties in the snow cover in the upper layer. We can also see that the snow cover has drastically become more wet during spring specially for the month may and there is no doubt that the increased air temperature is behind it. There are also distinct signs of metamorphoses in the snow cover which can explain the increased risks for avalanches in the area. Results also shows that the snow depth has decreased during the last 15 years (1993-2007) in autumn (October and November) in comparison with the other 15-year periods (1961-1992), but on the other hand the snow layer thickness has increased during the spring.