Hypertension affects 1 in 3 adults and is the single greatest risk factor for premature death. Salt-sensitive hypertension occurs in approximately 50% of hypertensive patients and results in a 3-fold increase in the risk of adverse cardiovascular events. However, the pathophysiology of salt-sensitive hypertension remains to be fully elucidated. There has been increased interest in the interaction between the sympathetic nervous system and the kidney and how that interaction mediates sodium excretion to drive the development of salt-sensitivity. Previous studies show that sympathetic over-activity increases expression of the sodium chloride cotransporter (NCC) resulting in increased NCC-mediated sodium reabsorption, and the development of salt-sensitive hypertension. In this thesis, I show the effect of increased norepinephrine (NE) and high salt intake in salt-resistant vs. salt-sensitive rat phenotypes on blood pressure regulation, NCC activity, and the adrenoreceptor-mediated regulatory kinase network signal transduction pathway. A high salt diet 1) exacerbates NE-induced hypertension in salt-resistant Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats and 2) results in hypertension in Dahl salt-sensitive (DSS) rats. In contrast to salt-resistant phenotypes (SD & Dahl salt-resistant), dietary sodium-evoked suppression of NCC expression and activity is prevented in salt-sensitive rats (SD-NE infusion & DSS) - I show that this occurs through a failure of a high salt intake to suppress renal OxSR1, SPAK, and WNK1 (NCC regulatory proteins). I demonstrate that α1-adrenoreceptors are responsible for mediating the salt-sensitive component of hypertension and restore dietary sodium-evoked suppression of the NCC via a predominant OxSR1 pathway. Chronic β-adrenoreceptor antagonism significantly reduces blood pressure in NE-mediated hypertension. How the body senses salt remains unknown, but my data show that selective removal of the afferent renal nerves prevents dietary sodium-evoked suppression of NCC expression and activity resulting in salt-sensitive hypertension, suggesting that the afferent renal nerves play an important role as a sodium-sensing mechanism. Overall, these data demonstrate that attenuated afferent renal nerve feedback drives renal efferent nerve release of NE to prevent the downregulation of the NCC via an α1-adrenergic receptor-gated WNK1-OxSR1 signal transduction pathway to evoke the development of salt-sensitive hypertension.

O trabalho, realizado na FZEA/USP/Pirassununga, visou avaliar doses de NaCl e de N, em idades de corte, em coastcross (Cynodon dactylon), em relação à sua composição bromatológica e química e digestibilidade "in vitro". O delineamento foi de blocos inteiramente casualizados, num fatorial de 4x2x2 (doses NaCl x doses N x idades de cortes), em canteiros de 3x3m, com 4 repetições, cortados a 5cm, de 30 e 60d para primavera, verão e outono e 45 e 90d para o inverno. A adubação foi: 0, 20, 40 e 60 Kg NaCl/ha/corte e 20 e 40 Kg N/ha/corte (uréia). Realizaram-se análises de MS, FDN, FDA, PB, DIVMS, P, K, Ca, Mg, Na e de fertilidade do solo inicial e final (0-20 e 20-40cm). Sem considerar as interações, o sal não foi significativo para as variáveis MS, FDN, FDA e PB, porém observou-se uma melhor atuação de jan/maio/2002, para todas as variáveis consideradas. Foi observada uma pequena redução nos teores de Ca e Mg, de acordo com o aumento nos tratamentos com NaCl, de set-dez/2001. A utilização do sal variou em função da época de corte para o Mg (jan/maio/2002), para o P (jul/2002) e para a DIVMS (inverno/2001, verão 2001/02 e outono/2002), e variou em função do N apenas no inverno/2002, para a DIVMS. A época de corte influenciou quase todas as variáveis, em todos os períodos. As doses de N foram significativas em função da PB (set-dez/2001). Foi observada interação tripla para a MS, FDA e DIVMS (nov/2001-maio/2002). Concluiu-se que: as doses de Na e N não influenciaram a produção e a composição química e bromatológica, influenciando a DIVMS. A planta não apresentou evidências de ter sido afetada pela utilização do Na. / The trial was developed in FZEA/USP/Pirassununga, to evaluate levels of NaCl and N, in two cutting ages, coast-cross (Cynodon dactylon), to observe the response in bromatologic composition and "in vitro" digestibility. As design, was used casualizated blocks applied in fatorial 4x2x2 (levels NaCl x level N x cutting ages), in seedbeds of 3x3 m, with 4 repetitions. The cutting were conducted, in 5 cm, in 30 and 60 days during the times of the spring, summer and autumn, and in 45 and 90 days for winter. Analyses from DM, NDF, ADF, CP, IVDDM, P, K, Ca, Mg and Na were conducted. Analyze from the soil fertility in the beginning and final of the project (0-20 cm and 20-40 cm), to evaluate if had accumulative effect of the salt. Without the interaction, the salt didn’t show significant statistical for variables as DM, NDF, ADF and CP. But was observed a better situation in the jan-may/2002. A little reduction in the levels of Ca and Mg , with the increase from the levels of the NaCl, was observed in Sep-Dec/2001. In the case of Mg (jan-may/2002), P (jul/2002) and IVDDM (winter/2001) showed variation in the different cutting ages correlated with the levels of NaCl. Different levels of N related some variations for IVDDM in winter 2002. The cutting time influenced almost every variable in all times. The levels of N were significated for levels of CP (set-dec/2001). For the variables DM, ADF and IVDDM, during nov/2001-may/2002 these were observed a triple interaction. Data collected the following conclusions: level of Na and N didn’t influence the production and chemical composition, but influenced IVDDM. The plant didn’t show evidence that was affected by Na treatment.

Introdução: A sensibilidade ao sal possui implicações clínicas e prognósticas, porém seu diagnóstico não é habitualmente feito na prática clínica, tendo em vista que o teste de referência é longo e de difícil execução, envolvendo ciclos de dietas hipossódica e hipersódica. O objetivo principal do presente estudo foi avaliar a acurácia do teste da fludrocortisona, quando comparado ao teste de referência. O objetivo secundário foi estudar o teste de referência, avaliando em quanto tempo é possível ser realizado o diagnóstico. Métodos: Foi realizado estudo randomizado e crossover com homens e mulheres hipertensos, sem outras comorbidades, de 40 a 65 anos de idade. Após quatro semanas de washout os pacientes foram randomizados para iniciar pelo teste dos ciclos de dietas ou pelo teste da fludrocortisona. O primeiro consistiu na administração de 7 dias de dieta hipossódica (40 mEq/dia) seguidos por 7 dias de dieta hipersódica (200 mEq/dia), sendo considerados sensíveis os indivíduos com variação da pressão arterial média (PAM) superior a 5 mmHg. O segundo consistiu na administração de 0,4 mg / dia do acetato de fludrocortisona por 7 dias, durante ingestão alimentar habitual, sendo avaliada a variação da PAS ou PAM no quarto e sétimo dias do medicamento. O ponto de corte para esta variação foi estudado pela curva ROC, não sendo assumido arbitrariamente. A acurácia do teste foi medida pela área sob a curva ROC. Em relação ao objetivo secundário, foi estudado o comportamento diário da pressão arterial ao longo dos ciclos de dieta, através da MRPA. Resultados: Foram estudados trinta voluntários hipertensos (53,7 ± 7,6 anos; 72 ± 10,6 Kg; 26% negros, 10% pardos e amarelos), sendo 53% classificados como sensíveis pelo teste de referência. No quarto dia de fludrocortisona, as áreas sob a curva ROC (ASROC) foram de 0,761 ± 0,06 (p < 0,001) para a PAS, de 0,646 ± 0,072 (p < 0,05) para a PAM e de 0,554 ± 0,075 (p=0,469) para a Pressão arterial diastólica (PAD). No sétimo dia de fludrocortisona as ASROC foram 0,849 ± 0,05 (p < 0,001); 0,732 ± 0,06 (p=0,002); e 0,63 ± 0,07 (p=0,079) para respectivamente PAS, PAM e PAD. A maior acurácia foi obtida, portanto, no sétimo dia de fludrocortisona, utilizando a PAS como variável. Neste ponto, com o ponto de corte encontrado de 3 mmHg, o teste tem 83% de sensibilidade e 63% de especificidade. Em relação ao estudo do teste de referência, observou-se que não há diferença significante da variação pressórica obtida entre o quarto e sexto dias de dieta. Conclusões: A administração do acetato de Fludrocortisona na dose 0,4 mg/dia durante 7 dias - Teste da Fludrocortisona - pode ser utilizado para diagnóstico de sensibilidade ao sal em indivíduos hipertensos de 40 a 65 anos, não obesos e sem outras comorbidades. Em relação ao teste de referência para sensibilidade ao sal, é possível fazer o diagnóstico com duração de 8 dias, não sendo necessário prolongá-lo / Introduction: The salt sensitivity has clinical and prognostic implications; however, its diagnosis is not done in clinical practice, having in mind that the reference test is long and difficult to perform, involving cycles of hyposodic and high salt diets. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of fludrocortisone test, when compared to the reference test. The secondary objective was to study the reference test, evaluating the necessary time for diagnosis to be carried out. Methods: It was perfomed a randomized and crossover study was conducted, with hypertensives, with no other comorbidities, 40-65 years old. After four weeks of washout patients were randomized to start, the test cycles diets, or the test of fludrocortisone. The first consisted of the administration of 7 days of low sodium diet (40 mEq / day) followed by seven days of high salt diet (200 mEq / day), being considered sensitive individuals when mean arterial pressure variation (MAP) was greater than 5 mmHg. The second consisted in administration of 0.4 mg / day of fludrocortisone acetate for 7 days, during usual dietary intake, being assessed the variation of the systolic (SBP) or MAP in the fourth and seventh days of drug administration. The cutoff point for this variation was studied by the ROC curve, not being taken arbitrarily. The test accuracy was measured by area under the ROC curve. Regarding the secondary objective, the daily blood pressure behavior pattern along the diet cycles was studied, through HBPM. Results: Thirty hypertensives were studied (53.7 ± 7.6 years; 72 ± 10.6 kg; 26% black, 10% brown and 14% asian), with 53% classified as sensitive by the reference test. On the fourth day of fludrocortisone, the areas under the ROC curve (ASROC) were of 0.761 ± 0.06 (p < 0.001) for SBP, of 0.646 ± 0.072 (p < 0.05) for the MAP and of 0.554 ± 0.075 (p = 0.469) for diastolic blood pressure (DBP). On the seventh day of fludrocortisone, the ASROC was 0.849 ± 0.05 (p < 0.001); 0.732 ± 0.06 (p = 0.002); and 0.63 ± 0.07 (p = 0.079) respectively for SBP, MBP and DBP. Therefore, the highest accuracy occurred on the seventh day of fludrocortisone, using SBP as a variable. At this point, with the cutoff point of 3 mmHg found, the test showed 83% sensitivity and 63% specificity. Regarding the study of the reference test, it was observed no significant difference of pressure variation obtained between the fourth and sixth days of diet. Conclusions: The administration of fludrocortisone acetate at a dose 0.4 mg / day over 7 days - Fludrocortisone\'s Test - can be used for identification of salt sensitivity in hypertensives 40 65 years old, non-obese and with no other comorbidities. Regarding the reference test for salt sensitivity, it is possible to make the diagnosis with duration of 8 days, not being necessary to extend it

O objetivo deste trabalho consiste em avaliar o molibdato de sódio (Na2MoO4), o tungstato de sódio (Na2WO4) e um copolímero a base de silano polioxialquileno e polidimetilsiloxano modificado (CPPM) como inibidores de corrosão para o açocarbono ABNT 1005 em meio de NaCl 3,5%. O estudo compreendeu na exposição do metal no meio proposto na ausência e presença de concentrações crescentes das substâncias estudadas. As técnicas utilizadas foram: ensaios de imersão com medida de perda de massa; medida de potencial de corrosão (Ecorr); espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIE) e curvas de polarização potenciodinâmicas anódicas e catódicas (Cpol). Os resultados dos ensaios de imersão com medida de perda de massa mostraram que a velocidade de corrosão do aço-carbono ABNT 1005 em meio de água do mar é menor que a velocidade de corrosão em meio de NaCl 3,5%. Os valores de potenciais de corrosão mostraram que o Na2MoO4 e Na2WO4 deslocaram os potenciais para valores mais positivos indicando um comportamento de inibidores anódicos. Os parâmetros obtidos pela técnica de EIE mostraram que para o Na2MoO4 o melhor tempo de imersão foi de 6 horas e para o Na2WO4 foi de 12 horas, com eficiências de 70% e 77%, respectivamente. As Cpol confirmaram os resultados de potenciais de corrosão, ou seja, onde tanto o Na2MoO4 quanto o Na2WO4 comportaram-se como inibidores anódicos para o açocarbono ABNT 1005 em meio de NaCl 3,5%. O valor de perda de espessura com a presença de 1x10-2 mol.L-1 de Na2MoO4 com 24 horas de imersão comparado com o valor obtido em NaCl 3,5% sem inibidor forneceu uma eficiência de 82%, enquanto que na presença de Na2WO4, também com 24 horas de imersão e na concentração de 1x10-2 mol.L-1, a eficiência foi de 65%. Os resultados obtidos com o CPPM mostraram que esta substância não age como inibidor de corrosão para o açocarbono ABNT 1005 em meio de NaCl 3,5%. / The aim of this study is to evaluate the sodium molybdate (Na2Mo4), sodium tungstate (Na2WO4) and polydimethyl-siloxane modified copolymer (CPPM) as corrosion inhibitors for the carbon steel ABNT 1005 in 3,5% NaCl media. The metal substrate was exposed in the media with absence and presence of increasing concentrations of the investigated substances. The techniques used were: mass loss tests; open circuit potential; potentiodynamic polarization (Cpol) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). For comparative purpose, mass loss testes were carried out in seawater and in 3,5% NaCl. The results showed that carbon steel ABNT 1005 corrosion rate in seawater is lower than the corrosion rate at 3,5% NaCl. The Na2Mo4 and Na2WO4 corrosion potentials showed more positive values than their absence, indicating an anodic inhibitor behavior. The parameters obtained by EIS technique showed that for the Na2MoO4 the best time of immersion was 6 hours and the Na2WO4 was 12 hours, with efficiencies of 70% and 77% respectively. The Cpol results confirmed the anodic behavior as corrosion inhibitors of the Na2MoO4 and Na2WO4 for carbon steel ABNT 1005 in 3,5% NaCl. After 24 hours of immersion in 1,0x10-2 mol.L-1 Na2MoO4 presence, the corrosion inhibition efficiency estimed using Tafel extrapolation was 82%. In the 1x10-2 mol.L-1 Na2WO4 presence after 24 hours of immersion, the efficiency obtained was 65%. The CPPM results showed it not acting as corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel ABNT 1005 in 3.5% NaCl.

Considerable experimental evidence supports the concept that the growth of plants generally decreases progressively as the salt concentration of the substrate increases, but certain relationships between plant and substrate are still not fully understood. The chemistry of salt toxicity to plants involves many interactions both as to the quantity and kind of ions presented to the roots and those accumulated in the plants. Many plant species have shown sensitivity to excess accumulation of specific salts frequently encountered in saline soils. Thus Eaton (1942), Wadleigh, Hayward, and Ayers (1951 ) have shown most of the fruit trees to be susceptible to injury as a result of the accumulation of chloride ion. Wadleigh, et al. (1951) have reported orchard grass to be sensitive to calcium salts. Recently, Brown, Wadleigh, and Hayward (1953) have found calcium chloride more toxic to some fruit trees than isosmotic levels of sodium chloride. These and other studies have indicated a greater influence of specific ions than of the osnotic pressure of the solution.

Experiment A explored the influence of sodium on direct acid, nonfat Mozzarella cheese. Cheeses with differing salt levels were obtained by varying dry salt applications (none, 0.5%, and 1.0% NaCl w/w) and hot brine stretching (0%, 5%, and 10% NaCl wt/v). Salt application and salt content influenced cheese moisture, meltability, expressible serum, micro- and ultra-structure, and color. Moisture was highest when cheese was salted before stretching (P = 0.03) . Melt was lowest in cheeses that were unsalted (P = 0.05). Cheeses stretched in salt brine had < 1% of the amount of expressible serum found in unsalted cheese (P < 0.0001). Unsalted cheeses had a more open structure with pockets of serum distributed throughout the protein matrix giving it an opaque, white appearance. Salted cheeses had a more homogeneous protein matrix lacking light scattering surfaces, resulting in a translucent cheese. Neither salt concentration nor method of salting affected the calcium content of the cheeses (P > 0.05). Experiment B explored the influence of calcium, moisture, and pH on cheese structure and functionality. Cheeses were manufactured using combinations of citric and acetic acids. Addition of EDTA to the whey during cooking, CaCl2 fortification, and extended drain times were used to produce eight cheeses in a 23 factorial design with target pH levels of 5.8 and 5.3, 70% and 66% moisture, and 0.6% and 0.3% calcium levels. EDTA was unsuccessful in removing calcium from pH 5.8 cheese. Adding CaCh successfully increased the calcium level of pH 5.3 cheese. Cheese with 0.3% calcium had greatest melt, decreased hardness and increased adhesiveness. Cheese with 0.6% calcium had decreased melt and adhesiveness, and increased hardness. When calcium content was held at 0.6% there was no significant difference in melting even when pH was varied from pH 5.8 to pH 5.3 . The microstructure of the 0.6% calcium cheeses had an increase in protein folds and serum pockets. Low calcium cheeses had a very homogeneous structure. Directly acidified nonfat Mozzarella cheese manufactured with 1.0% dry salt and hot water stretching produced the best cheese. This cheese contained 0.4% salt, 0.4% calcium, no expressible serum, and good meltability.

Reverse Osmosis (RO) is widely accepted as an alternative method to produce freshwater from different feed water sources. This technology competitively substitutes the thermal processes in the near future because of several advantages particularly in energy saving. The success of RO operation will, however, depends largely on the overall membrane performance. Deposit or build-up of solute is one of the main reasons for membrane operation failure. Build-up of solute or deposit which is known as fouling and scaling will decrease the permeate flux and increase the energy consumption in particular after prolonged operation of RO. The thesis presents the experimental results obtained in a small-scale RO system. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of sodium chloride and calcium carbonate on the membrane performance and subsequent build-up of solute on the membrane surface. The experiments were carried out in a small-scale of RO (2 m3/day capacity) with spiral wound membrane using simulated feed water, secondary effluent, and groundwater samples. The parameters chosen for the experiments are applied pressure (1250-4750 kPa), and concentration of sodium chloride (l00-5000 mg/L) and calcium carbonate (50-100 mg/L). / The results from feedwater runs indicated that initial sodium chloride and calcium carbonate in feed water and applied pressure affects the overall membrane performance. However, there is no significant effect on membrane performance for sodium chloride with concentration below 1200 mg/L and applied pressure lower than 2250 kPa. Applied pressure appears to have an impact on build-up of sodium and calcium on the membrane surface for pressures greater than 2750 kPa. For typical small-scale RO system used in this experiment, build-up of calcium will slightly decrease with given pressure caused by the characteristic of membrane that easily removes the divalent ions. The osmotic pressure of solution also strongly affects the permeate flow rate in particular for relatively higher sodium concentration (> 2500 mg/L). As a consequence of higher osmotic pressure, zero permeate flux is achieved when sodium chloride concentration was greater than 5000 mg/L and applied pressure lower than 1750 kPa. Results also indicated that fouling might pose a potential problem in small-scale RO operation. In order to investigate the membrane performance, experiments with secondary effluent samples were also performed. Results indicated that water recovery percentages and permeate flux also linearly increase with applied pressure. However, effectiveness of membrane decreases less than 98% otherwise build-up of solute tends to increase. It is suggested that lower values of the water recovery percentage (WRP) and permeate flux (Jw) are caused by the characteristic of secondary effluent that have high-suspended solids, organic carbon, and minerals. Further, the membrane performance also examined with ground water as feed water sample. / Results showed that both water recovery percentage and permeate flux linearly increased with operating pressure. However, intensive pretreatment are required as a result of higher concentration of humic acid and iron in raw feed. Percentages of ion rejection for sodium and calcium are greater than 98 and 99% respectively. The high ion rejections are mainly due to the characteristics of groundwater with low TDS and EC. Sodium and calcium build-up in a small-scale RO system considered appears to be affected by the applied pressure. Build-up of solute in small-scale of RO system has been predicted using the empirical model proposed in this work. Two ions namely sodium and calcium in feed water considered as predominant ions responsible for fouling and scaling on the membrane surface. Four main parameters namely, applied pressure (P), permeate flux (Jw), membrane resistance (Rm), and feed concentration (Cf) are considered which strongly affect the overall membrane performance. The empirical correlations derived from experimental observation among these parameters can be expressed as follows: In Md NaCI = O. 77 In P + 0.67 In Jw + 0.19 In Rm + 0.171n Cf In Md CaCO3= 0.96 In P + 0.75 In Jw + 0.2 In Rm - 0.07 In Cf / The empirical models proposed in this thesis may be useful for predicting the buildup of solute on the membrane surfaces. In the present work, an attempt has been made to estimate the energy consumption and unit cost for desalting of different feed water samples in a small-scale RO system. In RO plants, unit cost of water production from feed water is primarily governed by the energy required for pumping raw water. Estimates of specific energy consumption (SEC) for desalting of sodium chloride, combined sodium and calcium carbonate solutions were found to be in the range of 0.79 - 3.21 and 0.81 - 3.22 kwh/m3 respectively. For groundwater and secondary effluent, they are estimated to 0.63 - 1.71 and 0.79 - 2.02 kWh/m3 respectively. Moreover, energy consumption for different feed water samples was used to estimate the unit cost for water production. Estimation of unit costs for combined sodium chloride and calcium carbonate solution, groundwater, and secondary effluent runs are $2.06 - 3.22, $1.98 - 2.57 and $1.56- 2.66 respectively. In this work, unit cost is still higher due to greater energy consumption .by the pumping system which is required in a small-scale RO operation. Based on the experimental results, it appears that the characteristics of feed water samples affect the membrane performance and their effects must be taken into account in the design of RO units so as to reduce the unit cost for water production. / The findings from the present experimental and modelling work are of practical significance in not only providing the knowledge base in the area of desalination but also paves the way for developing tools for the prediction of build-up of solutes on membrane surface in full scale reverse osmosis operations.

Thesis (M.Sc.)--Memorial University of Newfoundland, 2005. / Bibliography: leaves 132-142.

No description available.

Identification of salt- resistant tree species and genotypes is needed for rehabilitation of lands affected by salinity in Mexico. This dissertation consists of four studies for analyzing the responses of Pinus leiophylla seedlings to salt. In the first study, resistance to salt stress was studied in six-month-old seedlings from eight different sources of seed collected from the areas with contrasting precipitation levels. Plants from the xeric areas were shorter and had smaller stem diameters but were less sensitive to salt stress and recovered faster from salt injury compared with the plants from mesic sites, suggesting that morphological and physiological adaptations to drought were helpful with salt stress resistance. In the second study, fascicle needle production and tissue ion accumulation were examined in NaCl-treated three-month-old seedlings from two populations of the xeric origin and two populations from the mesic areas. Seedlings from the xeric population of San Felipe developed fewer fascicles and had shorter needles compared with seedlings from the remaining three populations. NaCl treatment delayed the emergence of fascicles and reduced the fascicle needle production and needle length. However, the extent of needle injury and ion accumulation in shoots were lower in the San Felipe seedlings compared with the other studied populations. In the third study, the effects of branch pruning and seedling size on total transpiration and accumulation of Na+ and Cl- in tissues were examined. Total plant transpiration, as affected by plant size and branch pruning, was correlated with Na+ and Cl- needle concentrations and needle necrosis. Branch pruning reduced ion accumulation in the shoots and needle necrosis levels in short seedlings but not in the tall seedlings. In the fourth study, sprouting and physiological responses of 16 month-old-seedling to salt were examined. NaCl treatment concentrations of 100, 150, and 200 mM reduced gas exchange and root hydraulic conductance, caused needle injury and triggered sprouting of adventitious shoots. Sprouting from the upper parts of the main stem and lateral branches was three times greater with 100 and 150 mM NaCl compared with 200 mM NaCl treatment but, at the base of the stem, sprout numbers were similar for all NaCl treatments.