Irish agriculture is becoming increasingly regulated, with restrictions on fertiliser application rates and stocking rates to reduce nitrate (NO₀⁻) leaching losses. However these regulations have been, to date, based on minimal field research. The purpose of this study was to determine the actual leaching losses of nitrate from Irish dairy pasture at a range of stocking rates, and to investigate the effectiveness of the nitrification inhibitor DCD at reducing nitrate leaching losses where these are deemed excessive. In grazed pastures, a major source of leached nitrate is the urine patch, where a high rate of N is applied in one application. This trial recorded the losses from urine and non-urine areas of pasture separately. Nitrate leaching losses from three soils were recorded using lysimeters at Johnstown Castle, Co. Wexford, over two years. Total nitrate losses were higher from the freely drained Clonakilty and Elton soils than from the heavy Rathangan soil. Mean nitrate losses from urine patches ranged from 16 - 233 kg nitrate-N / ha⁻¹, and were reduced by up to 53% when DCD was applied. DCD also reduced peak and mean nitrate-N concentrations in many cases. In addition, DCD halved the nitrous oxide (N₂O) emission factor on the Rathangan soil, caused increases in pasture N content, and increased herbage yield in some treatments. The distribution of urine patches under dairy grazing was recorded using GPS at Kilworth, Co. Cork. Cows were also found to deposit 0.359 urine patches per grazing hour. A model was produced to predict field-scale nitrate leaching losses from dairy pasture at a range of stocking rates. At 2.94 cows per hectare, the highest stocking rate, annual field N loss was below 34 kg nitrate-N ha⁻¹, mean drainage N concentrations were below 5.65 mg nitrate-N L⁻¹ (the EU drinking water guideline value), and the worst-case-scenario autumn peak concentration did not exceed 21.55 mg nitrate-N L⁻¹ (above the EU Maximum Allowable Concentration (MAC) but below the World Health Organisation (WHO) drinking water limit). DCD reduced total annual field N loss by 21% (a conservative estimate), and also reduced mean and peak nitrate concentrations. Provided fertiliser application rates are at or below 291 kg N ha⁻¹, and based on current legislative values for drinking water quality, this trial does not support any blanket restrictions on the stocking rate of Irish dairy farms. However where particularly high water quality is required, DCD shows potential as a useful tool to achieve low nitrate concentrations.

A two-year lysimeter study was undertaken to compare the environmental effects (e.g. nitrate leaching and nitrous oxide emissions) of soil applied lactose-depleted dairy factory effluent (LD-DFE) with lactose-rich DFE. The aim of this experiment was to determine the fate of nitrogen from LD-DFE and dairy cow urine applied to a Templeton fine sandy loam soil (Udic Ustrochrept), supporting a herbage cover of ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens). Measurements were carried out on the amount of nitrogen lost from the soil via leaching, lost by denitrification, removed by the pasture plants, and immobilized within the soil organic fraction. Further, a comparison between the fate of nitrogen in LD-DFE irrigated onto land under a "cut and carry" system, as opposed to a "grazed" pasture system was undertaken. Lactose-depleted dairy factory effluent was applied at three-weekly intervals during the summer months at rates of 25 and 50 mm, until nitrogen loading targets of 300 and 600 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ had been achieved. Measured leaching losses of nitrogen averaged 2 and 7 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for Control 25 and Control 50 treatments; 21, 20 and 58 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for 25 and 50 mm "cut and carry" treatments respectively; and 96 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for the 25 mm "grazed" treatment. The range of nitrate-N leaching loss from LD-DFE plus urine is no different from the lactose-rich DFE nitrate leaching loss. Uptake of nitrogen by the growing pasture averaged 153, 184,340,352,483, and 415 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for Control 25, Control 50, LD-DFE 25 and LD-DFE 50 mm "cut and carry" treatments, and the LD-DFE 25 mm "grazed" treatment, respectively. Denitrification losses were 0.06, 4.4, 1.69, 19.70, and 7.4 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ for Control 25, the LD-DFE 25 "cut and carry" treatments, the LD-DFE 25 mm "grazed" treatment, and calculated "paddock losses", respectively. Isotopic nitrogen studies found that 29.4 and 25.8% of applied LD-DFE nitrogen was immobilised in the LD-DFE 25 and LD-DFE 50 "cut and carry" treatments. The results of this experiment confirm the findings of the previous lactose-rich DFE study, in that the effects of grazing stock are of greater environmental concern than the removal of lactose from the effluent waste stream.

O reúso da água é uma prática amplamente estudada e recomendada por diversos pesquisadores como alternativa viável para suprir as necessidades hídricas e, parte das demandas nutricionais das plantas. No Brasil, esta atividade está em processo de desenvolvimento. Sua implantação está condicionada a especificidades locais, respeitando as legislações dos recursos hídricos, proteção ao meio ambiente e saúde pública. Além de fatores como qualidade do efluente tratado e seleção de culturas a serem irrigadas, faz-se necessário aplicar práticas adequadas de manejo, para conservação das propriedades físico-químicas e biológicas do sistema solo, planta e atmosfera. Diante do exposto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo a avaliação do comportamento dos íons na solução do solo e no solo, do fluxo de gases do efeito estufa e da produtividade da água da cultura, em um sistema de produção irrigado com efluente de abatedouro tratado por sistema anaeróbio, no cultivo de capim coastcross para feno, em diferentes doses de adubação nitrogenada. O delineamento experimental adotado foi em blocos ao acaso, com cinco tratamentos e quatro repetições, sendo estes: T1 - irrigação com água superficial e adição de 100% de adubação nitrogenada (AN) recomendada; T2, T3, T4 e T5 - irrigação com efluente tratado de abatedouro e adição de 0; 33%; 66% e 100 % de AN, respectivamente. Sendo a AN 50 kg ha-1 corte-1 de nitrogênio, na forma de ureia. O solo foi avaliado quimicamente nas profundidades de 0-0,20 m e 0,20-0,40 m, para os parâmetros de fertilidade e sódio trocável. A solução do solo foi obtida por pasta de saturação para posterior análise dos íons Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, SO4-, NO2-, NO3- e NH4+. A produtividade da água foi determinada pela relação entre produção de massa seca do capim e lâmina de irrigação mais precipitação pluviométrica. A coleta de gases do solo foi realizada por câmaras estáticas e os gases analisados foram gás carbônico, metano e óxido nitroso, por cromatografia gasosa, para determinação do fluxo de gases do solo. Os dados foram avaliados nas estações inverno-primavera (ano 2017) e verão-outono (ano 2018). Os resultados comprovam o potencial do uso de efluentes tratados de abatedouro na irrigação do capim coastcross, como forma complementar ao tratamento anaeróbio. O manejo adotado concentrou os elementos químicos do solo na camada 0-0,20 m, profundidade efetiva do sistema radicular do capim. O aporte de sais ao solo ocorreu nos tratamentos com efluente, no período inverno-primavera, as precipitações ocorridas no período seguinte (verão) foram suficientes para lixiviar os sais para a camada inferior do solo. A análise de solução do solo comprovou o potencial de lixiviação de nitrogênio na forma de nitrato e nitrito, durante todo o período estudado, principalmente para o tratamento com efluente tratado de abatedouro e 100% da AN. Os tratamentos não influenciaram a produtividade da água. A avaliação do fluxo de gases de efeito estufa do solo comprovou a influência das variáveis climáticas e da umidade do solo, ao longo do tempo. O fluxo de CO2 foi maior na coleta de dezembro/2017, incrementado nos tratamentos com efluente. Considerando a dinâmica de solutos no solo, o potencial do aporte de nutrientes e o teor salino do efluente, assim como o fluxo de gases de efeito estufa do solo, o tratamento com efluente tratado de abatedouro, sem adubação nitrogenada, foi o tratamento mais adequado para as condições de desenvolvido do experimento. / Water reuse is a practice widely studied and recommended by several researchers as a viable alternative to meet water needs and part of the nutritional demands of plants. In Brazil, this activity is in the process of development. Its implementation is conditioned to local specificities, respecting the laws of water resources, protection of the environment and public health. In addition to factors such as the quality of the treated effluent and the selection of crops to be irrigated, it is necessary to apply appropriate management practices for the conservation of the physical-chemical and biological properties of the soil, plant and atmosphere system. In view of the above, the present work had the objective of evaluating the behavior of the ions in soil and soil solution, the greenhouse gas flow and the crop water productivity, in an irrigated production system with treated slaughterhouse effluent by anaerobic system, in the cultivation of coastcross grass for hay, at different doses of nitrogen fertilization. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design, with five treatments and four replications: T1 - irrigation with superficial water and addition of 100% of recommended nitrogen fertilization (AN); T2, T3, T4 and T5 - irrigation with treated effluent from slaughterhouse and addition of 0; 33%; 66% and 100% AN, respectively. Being the AN 50 kg ha-1 cut-1 of nitrogen, in the form of urea. The soil was chemically evaluated at depths of 0-0,20 m and 0,20-0,40 m, for fertility and exchangeable sodium parameters. The solution of the soil was obtained by saturation paste for later analysis of Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, SO4-, NO2-, NO3- and NH4+ ions. The water productivity was determined by the relation between dry mass production of the grass and irrigation blade plus rainfall. Soil gas collection was performed by static chambers and the gases analyzed were carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides, all by gas chromatography, to determine the flow of soil gases. The data were evaluated in the seasons winter-spring (2017) and summer-autumn (2018). The results confirm the potential of the use of treated effluents from slaughterhouse on coastcross grass irrigation as a complementary form to the anaerobic treatment. The management adopted concentrated the chemical elements of the soil in the layer 0-0,20 m, effective depth of the grass root system. The contribution of salts in the soil occurred in the treatments with effluent, in the winter-spring period, the precipitations occurred in the following period (summer) were sufficient to leach the salts to the lower layer of the soil. The soil solution analysis showed the potential of nitrogen leaching in the form of nitrate and nitrite, during the whole studied period, mainly for treatment with slaughterhouse treated effluent and 100% AN. Treatments did not influence water productivity. The evaluation of the flow of greenhouse gases from the soil proved the influence of climatic variables and soil moisture over time. The CO2 flux was higher in the collection of December / 2017, increased in the treatments with effluent. Considering the dynamics of solutes in the soil, the nutrient supply potential and the saline content of the effluent, as well as the greenhouse gas flow of the soil, treatment with treated effluent from slaughterhouse, without nitrogen fertilization, was the most appropriate treatment for the developed conditions of the experiment.

O reúso da água é uma prática amplamente estudada e recomendada por diversos pesquisadores como alternativa viável para suprir as necessidades hídricas e, parte das demandas nutricionais das plantas. No Brasil, esta atividade está em processo de desenvolvimento. Sua implantação está condicionada a especificidades locais, respeitando as legislações dos recursos hídricos, proteção ao meio ambiente e saúde pública. Além de fatores como qualidade do efluente tratado e seleção de culturas a serem irrigadas, faz-se necessário aplicar práticas adequadas de manejo, para conservação das propriedades físico-químicas e biológicas do sistema solo, planta e atmosfera. Diante do exposto, o presente trabalho teve como objetivo a avaliação do comportamento dos íons na solução do solo e no solo, do fluxo de gases do efeito estufa e da produtividade da água da cultura, em um sistema de produção irrigado com efluente de abatedouro tratado por sistema anaeróbio, no cultivo de capim coastcross para feno, em diferentes doses de adubação nitrogenada. O delineamento experimental adotado foi em blocos ao acaso, com cinco tratamentos e quatro repetições, sendo estes: T1 - irrigação com água superficial e adição de 100% de adubação nitrogenada (AN) recomendada; T2, T3, T4 e T5 - irrigação com efluente tratado de abatedouro e adição de 0; 33%; 66% e 100 % de AN, respectivamente. Sendo a AN 50 kg ha-1 corte-1 de nitrogênio, na forma de ureia. O solo foi avaliado quimicamente nas profundidades de 0-0,20 m e 0,20-0,40 m, para os parâmetros de fertilidade e sódio trocável. A solução do solo foi obtida por pasta de saturação para posterior análise dos íons Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, SO4-, NO2-, NO3- e NH4+. A produtividade da água foi determinada pela relação entre produção de massa seca do capim e lâmina de irrigação mais precipitação pluviométrica. A coleta de gases do solo foi realizada por câmaras estáticas e os gases analisados foram gás carbônico, metano e óxido nitroso, por cromatografia gasosa, para determinação do fluxo de gases do solo. Os dados foram avaliados nas estações inverno-primavera (ano 2017) e verão-outono (ano 2018). Os resultados comprovam o potencial do uso de efluentes tratados de abatedouro na irrigação do capim coastcross, como forma complementar ao tratamento anaeróbio. O manejo adotado concentrou os elementos químicos do solo na camada 0-0,20 m, profundidade efetiva do sistema radicular do capim. O aporte de sais ao solo ocorreu nos tratamentos com efluente, no período inverno-primavera, as precipitações ocorridas no período seguinte (verão) foram suficientes para lixiviar os sais para a camada inferior do solo. A análise de solução do solo comprovou o potencial de lixiviação de nitrogênio na forma de nitrato e nitrito, durante todo o período estudado, principalmente para o tratamento com efluente tratado de abatedouro e 100% da AN. Os tratamentos não influenciaram a produtividade da água. A avaliação do fluxo de gases de efeito estufa do solo comprovou a influência das variáveis climáticas e da umidade do solo, ao longo do tempo. O fluxo de CO2 foi maior na coleta de dezembro/2017, incrementado nos tratamentos com efluente. Considerando a dinâmica de solutos no solo, o potencial do aporte de nutrientes e o teor salino do efluente, assim como o fluxo de gases de efeito estufa do solo, o tratamento com efluente tratado de abatedouro, sem adubação nitrogenada, foi o tratamento mais adequado para as condições de desenvolvido do experimento. / Water reuse is a practice widely studied and recommended by several researchers as a viable alternative to meet water needs and part of the nutritional demands of plants. In Brazil, this activity is in the process of development. Its implementation is conditioned to local specificities, respecting the laws of water resources, protection of the environment and public health. In addition to factors such as the quality of the treated effluent and the selection of crops to be irrigated, it is necessary to apply appropriate management practices for the conservation of the physical-chemical and biological properties of the soil, plant and atmosphere system. In view of the above, the present work had the objective of evaluating the behavior of the ions in soil and soil solution, the greenhouse gas flow and the crop water productivity, in an irrigated production system with treated slaughterhouse effluent by anaerobic system, in the cultivation of coastcross grass for hay, at different doses of nitrogen fertilization. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design, with five treatments and four replications: T1 - irrigation with superficial water and addition of 100% of recommended nitrogen fertilization (AN); T2, T3, T4 and T5 - irrigation with treated effluent from slaughterhouse and addition of 0; 33%; 66% and 100% AN, respectively. Being the AN 50 kg ha-1 cut-1 of nitrogen, in the form of urea. The soil was chemically evaluated at depths of 0-0,20 m and 0,20-0,40 m, for fertility and exchangeable sodium parameters. The solution of the soil was obtained by saturation paste for later analysis of Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, K+, SO4-, NO2-, NO3- and NH4+ ions. The water productivity was determined by the relation between dry mass production of the grass and irrigation blade plus rainfall. Soil gas collection was performed by static chambers and the gases analyzed were carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxides, all by gas chromatography, to determine the flow of soil gases. The data were evaluated in the seasons winter-spring (2017) and summer-autumn (2018). The results confirm the potential of the use of treated effluents from slaughterhouse on coastcross grass irrigation as a complementary form to the anaerobic treatment. The management adopted concentrated the chemical elements of the soil in the layer 0-0,20 m, effective depth of the grass root system. The contribution of salts in the soil occurred in the treatments with effluent, in the winter-spring period, the precipitations occurred in the following period (summer) were sufficient to leach the salts to the lower layer of the soil. The soil solution analysis showed the potential of nitrogen leaching in the form of nitrate and nitrite, during the whole studied period, mainly for treatment with slaughterhouse treated effluent and 100% AN. Treatments did not influence water productivity. The evaluation of the flow of greenhouse gases from the soil proved the influence of climatic variables and soil moisture over time. The CO2 flux was higher in the collection of December / 2017, increased in the treatments with effluent. Considering the dynamics of solutes in the soil, the nutrient supply potential and the saline content of the effluent, as well as the greenhouse gas flow of the soil, treatment with treated effluent from slaughterhouse, without nitrogen fertilization, was the most appropriate treatment for the developed conditions of the experiment.

O entendimento da dinâmica hidrossedimentológica em uma bacia hidrográfica pode ser realizado pelo monitoramento das variáveis hidrossedimentológicas e pela modelagem desses processos. Nesse contexto, essa pesquisa analisou a eficiência do modelo Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) na previsão dos processos hidrossedimentológicos na bacia do Taboão (Pejuçara, RS), considerando as saídas (vazão e produção de sedimentos) em um passo de tempo mensal e diário. Para tal, foram utilizados dados de chuva horária dos anos 2008 a 2016, monitorada em quatro pluviógrafos instalados na bacia (PVGs 34, 40, 43 e 51), e dados climáticos da estação meteorológica de Cruz Alta. As informações de vazão, para os anos de 2011 a 2016, foram obtidas por meio da conversão dos dados de nível de água monitorados no exutório da bacia, utilizando uma curva-chave cota x vazão. A concentração de sedimentos suspensos (CSS), para os anos de 2013 a 2015, foi estimada por meio de modelos de redes neurais artificias (RNAs), empregando como entrada dados de turbidez e de nível de água, monitorados no exutório da bacia. O preenchimento das falhas dos registros de precipitação horária foi executado por meio de modelos de Combinações de RNAs (CRNAs) associados à média simples (MS) ou à média ponderada pelo inverso da distância (MP), utilizando como entrada dados pluviométricos dos postos vizinhos. As falhas nos dados de nível de água foram preenchidas por modelos de RNAs, que usaram como entrada níveis de água monitorados em sub-bacias embutidas ou adjacente à bacia do Taboão (bacias do Donato, Turcato, Alemão e Andorinhas), e dados de precipitação média dos quatro pluviógrafos utilizados nessa pesquisa Foram determinadas as defasagens temporais entre os níveis de água das diferentes bacias, e testados o uso da precipitação média com aplicação de filtro temporal linear e/ou exponencial. Os registros falhos nos dados de turbidez foram preenchidos por modelos de RNAs, que empregaram como entrada informações de nível de água monitoradas, de 10 em 10 minutos, no exutório da bacia. A calibração do modelo SWAT para a previsão dos processos hidrológicos foi realizada usando dados de vazão, diários e mensais, para os anos de 2013, 2014 e 2016 e; a etapa de verificação foi executada para os anos de 2011 e 2015. Considerou-se o Método de Green & Ampt para determinação da infiltração de água no solo e 2 anos (2008-2009) para período de aquecimento do modelo SWAT. A calibração do modelo para a produção de sedimentos foi realizada para os anos de 2013 e 2015 e o processo de verificação foi efetuado para o ano de 2014. A calibração e a análise de sensibilidade dos parâmetros foram realizadas com auxílio do SWAT-CUP, utilizando o algoritmo SUFI-2. O coeficiente de Nash–Sutcliffe (NS) das RNAs para preenchimento das falhas de precipitação variou entre 0,35, classificado como “Insatisfatório”, e 0,86, avaliado como “Muito Bom”, considerando critérios propostos por Moriasi et al. (2007). Das 13 RNAs desenvolvidas para preenchimento das falhas nos níveis de água, apenas uma delas foi classificada como de desempenho “Satisfatório” durante o treinamento e; as demais enquadraram-se como de desempenho “Muito Bom”. Na etapa de verificação, sete RNAs foram consideradas com desempenho “Muito Bom” e cinco com “Bom” desempenho No preenchimento das falhas de turbidez, das cinco RNAs desenvolvidas, quatro mostraram “Bom” desempenho durante o treinamento, e uma rede teve desempenho “Muito Bom”; enquanto que, no processo de verificação, duas RNAs tiveram desempenho “Muito Bom”, uma delas foi classificada com desempenho “Bom” e; duas RNAs foram consideradas com desempenho “Satisfatório”. As estatísticas de desempenho dos modelos de RNAs desenvolvidos para o preenchimento das falhas de nível de água, de turbidez e de precipitação também demonstraram que tais redes representam uma alternativa interessante para a obtenção de séries contínuas desses dados, possibilitando o uso posterior dos registros para a modelagem hidrossedimentológica. A calibração do modelo SWAT para estimativa da vazão mensal mostrou desempenho “Muito Bom” (NS=0,78), e para a determinação da vazão diária foi considerado “Bom” (NS=0,72). Na etapa de verificação, o modelo manteve o “Bom” desempenho (NS=0,68) para estimativa da vazão diária, decaindo para desempenho “Satisfatório” (NS=0,64) para a simulação em escala mensal. Para a estimativa da produção de sedimentos mensal, o desempenho do modelo foi considerado “Bom” tanto na calibração (NS=0,66) quanto na verificação (NS=0,70). Na escala diária o desempenho foi “Satisfatório” para a calibração (NS=0,64) e “Insatisfatório” para a verificação (NS=0,38) Tais resultados indicam que o modelo SWAT é uma ferramenta promissora para aplicações na previsão hidrossedimentológica na bacia do Taboão, especialmente em termos de simulações dos processos hidrológicos. No entanto, existem limitações para aplicações na estimativa da produção de sedimentos, sobretudo quando considerados os processos em escala diária. Essas limitações são consequência da presença de processos erosivos na bacia (voçorocas), que não são simulados pelas rotinas presentes no modelo SWAT, bem como pelo escoamento dominante ser do tipo subsuperficial, com ocorrência de pipping; indicando-se, portanto, adequações nas rotinas do modelo para melhor representatividade desses processos. / The understanding of hydrosedimentological dynamics in a watershed can be obtained by monitoring the hydrossedimentological variables and by modeling these processes. In this context, this research analyzed the efficiency of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) in predicting the hydrosedimentological processes in the Taboão basin (Pejuçara, RS), considering the outputs (flow and sediment production) in a monthly and daily time step. For that, hourly rainfall data from 2008 to 2016 were monitored at four pluviographs installed in the basin (PVGs 34, 40, 43 and 51), and climate data were obtained from the Cruz Alta meteorological station. The flow information for the years 2011 to 2016 was obtained by converting the monitored water level data into flow by using a rating curve. The suspended sediment concentration (SSC), from 2013 to 2015, was estimated using artificial neural network (ANN) models, using as input turbidity and water level data, monitored in the basin. The filling of the hourly rainfall records was performed by models of Combinations of RNAs (CRNAs) associated with the simple mean (MS) or weighted mean to the inverse distance (MP), using as input rainfall data from the neighboring stations. Failures in the water-level data were filled by RNA models, which used as input water levels monitored in sub-basins adjacent or embedded to the Taboão basin (Donato, Turcato, Alemão and Andorinha basins), and mean precipitation data of the four pluviographs used in this research. The temporal lags between the water levels of the different basins were determined and the use of the average precipitation with linear and exponential temporal filters was tested The turbidity data records were filled by RNA models, using water level information monitored at every 10 minutes. The SWAT model calibration for predicting the hydrological processes was performed using daily and monthly flow data for the years 2013, 2014 and 2016 and the verification step was performed for the years 2011 and 2015; considering Green & Ampt Method for infiltration estimation and 2 years of warm-up period (2008-2009). The calibration of the model for sediment yield was performed for the years 2013 and 2015 and the verification process was carried out for the year 2014. The calibration and sensitivity analysis of the parameters were performed with the assistance of SWAT-CUP, using the SUFI-2 algorithm. The Nash-Sutcliffe Coefficient (NS) of the RNAs used to fill precipitation faults varied between 0.35, classified as "Unsatisfactory", and 0.86, evaluated as "Very Good", considering criteria proposed by Moriasi et al. (2007). Of the 13 RNAs developed to fill water level failures, only one of them was classified as a "Satisfactory" performance during training and; the others have been classified as "Very Good" performance. In the verification step, seven RNAs were considered to have "Very Good" performance and five had "Good” performance. In the fulfillment of the turbidity faults, of the five RNAs developed, four showed "Good" performance during the training, and one network had "Very Good" performance; while in the verification process two ANNs performed "Very Good", one of them was classified as "Good" and; two ANNs were considered to have "Satisfactory" performance The performance statistics of the ANN models developed to fill the water level, turbidity and precipitation failures also demonstrated that such networks represent an interesting alternative to obtain continuous series of these data, allowing the later use of the records for hydrossedimentological modeling. In the verification processes, the model maintained a “Good” performance (NS=0.68) to estimate the daily flow, decreasing to "Satisfactory" performance (NS=0.64) for the monthly scale simulation. For the estimation of sediment yield the model performance was considered "Good" for monthly calibration period (NS=0.66) and also for the verification (NS=0.70). In daily scale the performance was "Satisfactory" for calibration (NS=0.64) and “Unsatisfactory” in the verification (NS=0.38). These results indicate that the SWAT model is a promising tool for applications in the hydrosedimentological forecasting in the Taboão basin, especially in terms of hydrological processes simulations. However, there are limitations to applications in the estimation of sediment production, especially when considering daily scale processes. These limitations are due to the presence of erosive processes in the basin (gully erosion), which are not simulated by the routines present in the SWAT model, as well as by the existence of the lateral flow with occurrence of pipping; indicating, therefore, the need for adjustments in the routines of the model to better represent these processes.

An abundance of waste products from the forestry industry (sawdust and paper pulp) lead to the concept of using them as growing media for high value crops on a field scale. However, management of subsequent weed growth posed a problem as the impact of these novel media on the performance and fate of herbicides was unknown. Three aspects of sawdust and paper pulp waste were examined and compared to two cropping soils, viz. their effect on herbicide behaviour with regard to crop selectivity, weed control efficacy and the environmental fate of selected chemicals. Cropping species such as lettuce and onions were more susceptible to alachlor and chlorpropham in sawdust than in paper pulp. The two cropping soils evaluated (Horotiu sandy loam and Mangateretere silt loam) tended to be intermediate although the former was often close to the sawdust and the latter to the paper pulp in terms of herbicide phytotoxicity to the crop plants. For the less water soluble herbicide pendimethalin, the differences in crop selectivity in the different media were not significant. The effect of the media on the efficacy of weed control was evaluated through plant species with a much lower tolerance to the herbicides evaluated in contrast to the above species. For these plants the efficacy of the herbicides was generally lower in both the sawdust and paper pulp than in the two soils. The effect was more pronounced with the more soluble alachlor, where efficacy was reduced by factors of 5 – 10, compared to pendimethalin where efficacy reduction was by factors of 0 – 3. The two high organic media had contrasting effects on the various environmental behaviour indices evaluated. Herbicide adsorption as quantified by distribution coefficient (Kd) was higher in the two novel media compared to both the Horotiu and Mangateretere soils. However, when the Kd was normalised to organic carbon (Koc), there was less variation amongst the media indicating that organic matter is an important factor in controlling sorption in these media. However, despite the high level of adsorption in the sawdust, herbicides were most prone to leaching in this medium. Conversely the paper pulp tended to be more retentive while the two soils were intermediate. The degradation as quantified by half-lives (t½) of the herbicides was generally slower in the two novel media, probably reflecting the higher sorption in these two media but also due to the lower level of microbial activity in the sawdust and paper pulp. The study shows that herbicide behaviour in these carbon based media differs significantly from that expected from soil organic matter, mainly due to the non-humified nature of the organic matter in the media and its poor biological activity.

This Minor Field Study was carried out during November and December in 2011 in the Mount Elgon District in Western Kenya. The objective was to examine nine small-scale farming household´s land use and socioeconomic situation when they have joined a non-governmental organization (NGO) project, which specifically targets small-scale farming households to improve land use system and socioeconomic situation by the extension of soil and water conservation measures. The survey has worked along three integral examinations methods which are mapping and processing data using GIS, semi structured interviews and literature studies.   This study has adopted a theoretical approach referred to as political ecology, in which landesque capital is a central concept. The result shows that all farmers, except one, have issues with land degradation. However, the extent of the problem and also implemented sustainable soil and water conservation measures were diverse among the farmers. The main causes of this can both be linked to how the farmers themselves utilized their farmland and how impacts from the climate change have modified the terms of the farmers working conditions. These factors have consequently resulted in impacts on the informants’ socioeconomic conditions. Furthermore it was also registered that social and economic elements, in some cases, were the causes of how the farmers manage their farmland. The farmer who had no significant problem with soil erosion had invested in trees and opportunities to irrigate the farmland. In addition, it was also recorded that certain farmers had invested in particular soil and water conservation measures without any significant result. This was probably due to the time span these land measures cover before they start to generate revenue.  The outcome of this study has traced how global, national and local elements exist in a context when it comes to the conditions of the farmers´ land use and their socioeconomic situation. The farmers atMt.Elgon are thereby a component of a wider context when they are both contributory to their socioeconomic situation, mainly due to their land management, and also exposed to core-periphery relationships on which the farmers themselves have no influence.

The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of alternative cropping systems on farm net returns, and nitrate-N and sediment yields in Thomas Brook Watershed (TBW). The study involved integrated bio-physical and economic optimization modelling. Crop yield and nitrate-N pollution response functions were estimated and then used in trade-off analysis between farm returns and environmental quality improvement. Five crop rotation systems were evaluated for seven fertilizer levels under conventional tillage (CT) and no-till systems (NT). Nitrate-N leached, as well as estimated maximum economic rate of N (MERN) fertilizer level and marginal abatement costs depended on crop type, rotation system, and tillage type. The most cost effective cropping systems that met restrictions on Health Canada maximum limit on nitrate-N in water included corn-corn-corn-alfalfa-alfalfa under NT for corn-based cropping systems, potato-winter wheat-carrot-corn under CT for vegetable horticulture-based and potato-barley-winter wheat-potato-corn under NT for potato-based cropping systems.

The objectives of this research were to develop and evaluate a field method for in situ measurement of soil properties using visible near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (Vis-NIRS). A probe with an independent light source for acquiring soil reflectance spectra from soil cores was developed around an existing portable field spectrometer (ASD FieldSpecPro, Boulder, CO, USA; 350-2500 nm). Initial experiments tested the ability of the acquired spectra to predict plant root density, an important property in soil carbon dynamics. Reflectance spectra were acquired from soil containing ryegrass roots (Lolium multiflorum) grown in Allophanic and Fluvial Recent soils in a glasshouse pot trial. Differences in root density were created by differential nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) was used to calibrate spectral data (pre-processed by smoothing and transforming spectra to the first derivative) against laboratory-measured root density data (wet-sieve technique). The calibration model successfully predicted root densities (r2 = 0.85, RPD = 2.63, RMSECV = 0.47 mg cm-3) observed in the pots to a moderate level of accuracy. This soil reflectance probe was then tested using a soil coring system to acquire reflectance spectra from two soils under pasture (0-60 mm soil depths) that had contrasting root densities. The PLSR calibration models for predicting root density were more accurate when soil samples from the two soils were separated rather than grouped. A more accurate prediction was found in Allophanic soils (r2 = 0.83, RPD = 2.44, RMSECV = 1.96 mg g-1) than in Fluvial Recent soils (r2 = 0.75, RPD = 1.98, RMSECV = 5.11 mg g-1). The Vis-NIRS technique was then modified slightly to work on a soil corer that could be used to measure root contents from deeper soil profiles (15- 600 mm depth) in arable land (90-day-old maize crop grown in Fluvial Recent soils). PLSR calibration models were constructed to predict the full range of maize root densities (r2 = 0.83, RPD = 2.42, RMSECV = 1.21 mg cm-3) and also soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) concentrations that had been determined in the laboratory (LECO FP- 2000 CNS Analyser; Leco Corp., St Joseph, MI, USA). Further studies concentrated on improving the Vis-NIRS technique for prediction of total C and N concentrations in differing soil types within different soil orders in the field. The soil coring method used in the maize studies was evaluated in permanent and recent pastoral soils (Pumice, Allophanic and Tephric Recent in the Taupo-Rotorua Volcanic Zone, North Island) with a wide range of soil organic matter contents resulting from different times (1-5 years) since conversion from forest soils. Without any sample preparation, other than the soil surface left after coring, it was possible to predict soil C and N concentrations with moderate success (C prediction r2 = 0.75, RMSEP = 1.23%, RPD = 1.97; N prediction r2 = 0.80, RMSEP = 0.10%, RPD = 2.15) using a technique of acquiring soil reflectance spectra from the horizontal cross-section of a soil core (H method). The soil probe was then modified to acquire spectra from the curved vertical wall of a soil core (V method), allowing the spectrometer’s field of view to increase to record the reflectance features of the whole soil sample taken for laboratory analysis. Improved predictions of soil C and N concentrations were achieved with the V method of spectral acquisition (C prediction r2 = 0.97, RMSECV = 0.21%, RPD = 5.80; N prediction r2 = 0.96, RMSECV = 0.02%, RPD = 5.17) compared to the H method (C prediction r2 = 0.95, RMSECV = 0.27%, RPD = 4.45; N prediction r2 = 0.94, RMSECV = 0.03%, RPD = 4.25). The V method was tested for temporal robustness by assessing its ability to predict soil C and N concentrations of Fluvial Recent soils under permanent pasture in different seasons. When principal component analysis (PCA) was used to ensure that the spectral dimensions (which were responsive to water content) of the data set used for developing the PLSR calibration model embraced those of the “unknown” soil samples, it was possible to predict soil C and N concentrations in “unknown” samples of widely different water contents (in May and November), with a high level of accuracy (C prediction r2 = 0.97, RMSEP = 0.36%, RPD = 3.43; N prediction r2 = 0.95, RMSEP = 0.03%, RPD = 3.44). This study indicates that Vis-NIRS has considerable potential for rapid in situ assessment of soil C, N and root density. The results demonstrate that field root densities in pastoral and arable soil can be predicted independently from total soil C, which will allow researchers to predict C sequestration from root production. The recommended “V” technique can be used to assess spatial and temporal variability of soil carbon and nitrogen within soil profiles and across the landscape. It can also be used to assess the rate of C sequestration and organic matter synthesis via root density prediction. It reduces the time, labour and cost of conventional soil analysis and root density measurement.

The major land use in New Zealand is pastoral farming of sheep and cattle. In intensively grazed dairy-pasture systems, animals graze on nitrogen (N)-rich legume-based pastures, but do not efficiently utilize the N they ingest. On average only 10.5% of the N in forage-based animal feed is converted into milk and the remainder is excreted in dung and urine. In the pastures, a cow urine patch can typically contain up to 1000 kg N ha-1. Nitrogen input, either in the form of cow urine or fertilizer, often exceeds immediate plant requirements and hence is susceptible to losses as ammonia (NH3) volatilisation and nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions and removal in drainage water through nitrate (NO3-) leaching. This loss of N from grazed pastures causes detrimental environmental impacts in the form of acidification and eutrophication of the soil and water bodies, global warming, destruction of stratospheric ozone, and NO3- toxicity. Various approaches have been attempted to mitigate the economic and environmental impacts of N losses. One such approach is the use of Urease (UIs) and Nitrification (NIs) inhibitors. There have been extensive studies on the value of UIs in arable farming and NIs in grazed pastures. However, only limited work on the impact of UI and NI alone and in combination in influencing the N dynamics, and thus mitigating N gaseous losses from pastures, has been conducted. This thesis examines the impact of UI (Agrotain; N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide) and NI (Dicyandiamide, commonly known as DCD), when applied alone or in combination to cow urine and urea fertiliser, on N losses through NH3 and N2O emissions and NO3- leaching, and on herbage production under glasshouse conditions and a field-plot study. The degradation rate of DCD, and its effect on nitrification and on N2O emissions from four soils varying in their physical and chemical properties was also examined under laboratory incubations. The results from the field-plot study were then used to predict the effect of DCD on N2O emissions reductions from urine by adapting the process-based NZ-DNDC model. Both NH3 and N2O emissions have common sources in agriculture. Therefore, chambers were adapted to measure their emissions simultaneously using active and passive gas sampling. Active sampling involved continuous air flow and the use of acid (0.05 M H2SO4 and 2% H3BO3) traps for NH3 measurements and passive sampling involved collecting three gas samples over a one-hour period from a static chamber used for N2O emissions. The first glasshouse experiment used UI with urine or urea to assess its effect on NH3 and N2O emissions, changes in soil mineral-N and N uptake by pasture plants. The UI treatments also involved two commercial products, Sustain Yellow (urea coated with Agrotain and elemental S) and Sustain Green (urea coated with Agrotain). The use of UI effectively decreased total NH3 emissions, as well as delaying the time of maximum NH3 emissions from both urea (600 kg N ha-1) and urine (476 kg N ha-1) by 27% and 22%, respectively. The UI-induced decrease in NH3 volatilization ranged from 42-48% when urea was applied @ 100 kg N ha-1. Urease inhibitor was also effective in decreasing N2O emissions significantly from urine and urea applied @ 100 kg N ha-1. The addition of UI increased dry matter yield by 13-19% as compared to the urea-alone treatment. In the second glasshouse study, NI (DCD) was added @ 25 kg ha-1 to urea (@ 25, 50 and 75 kg N ha-1) and urine (@ 144, 290 and 570 kg N ha-1) applied at different rates. Addition of DCD reduced N2O emissions from both urea and urine and NO3- leaching from urine. Dicyandiamide reduced N2O emissions by 34-93% from the added urea and 33-80% from the added urine. However, its use increased the amount of ammonium (NH4+) present in the soil by 3 to 13% both in the urea and urine treatments, and this NH4+ was susceptible to leaching and volatilisation losses. The addition of DCD, however, resulted in a 60-65% reduction in NO3- leaching from urine applied to pasture soil cores. It also caused a significant reduction in NO3- -induced cation leaching. Leaching of K+, Mg+2 and Ca+2 ions was reduced by 36-42%, 33-50% and 72%, respectively, with DCD applied to cattle urine (290 and 570 kg N ha-1). The combined use of UI and NI was more effective in controlling N gaseous losses than using them individually. The combination of UI and NI retarded NH3 emissions by 70% in the urea treatment and by 4% in the urine treatment (field-plot study). It also considerably reduced N2O emissions (50-51%) following the application of urea and urine (field-plot study) to pasture soil. With the combined inhibitors, there was a 14 and 38% increase in herbage yield from added urea and urine (field-plot study), respectively. A laboratory incubation experiment was undertaken to study the effect of soil types and the rate of DCD application on the degradation kinetics of DCD. The rate of degradation of DCD varied among the four soils studied. The degradation was slowest (half-life period of 6 to 11 days) in an allophanic soil with a high concentration of organic matter. The effectiveness of DCD in inhibiting nitrification also varied depending on the nature and amount of soil organic matter and clay content. The maximum inhibition was observed in a soil with low organic matter and high clay content. Finally, 'NZ-DNDC', a process-based model, was adapted and used to simulate the effect of DCD on emissions reduction using DCD inhibition values that vary according to different soil types. This model effectively simulated the effect of DCD on N2O emissions reductions in Tokomaru silt loam following urine application. However, more field data are required from a range of pasture soils with contrasting amount of soil organic matter and clay content under differing climatic conditions to further test this model modification to predict emission-reductions with DCD application in different soil types.