FN:s klimatpanel, IPCC, konstaterar att förutsättningarna för liv på jorden förändras och att denna förändring härleds med största sannolikhet till människan. Konsekvenserna påstås av andra framgångsrika forskningsinitiativ vara av sådan omfattning att det är motiverat att tala om en ny geologisk epok, Antropocen. En betydande drivkraft i denna förändring är människans utsläpp av växthusgaser som till del kan härledas till ett elbehov. Solceller är en teknik med vilken el kan produceras med betydligt mindre utsläpp av växthusgaser än konventionella tekniker. Utbyggnaden av solel är således en eftersträvansvärd miljöåtgärd.  Lönsamheten för solel har varit ett hinder för utbyggnaden, i synnerhet för kommersiella anläggningar. En känslighetsanalys genomförd i en studie från 2014 som undersöker lönsamheten för solcellsanläggningar i Sverige visar att den beräknade elproduktionen det första året är den faktor, näst efter den initiala investeringskostnaden, som har störst påverkan på lönsamhetsberäkningarna. Den mest noggranna metoden för prediktering av elproduktionen det första året för en tilltänkt solcellsanläggning innebär användandet av kommersiella programvarupaket som PVsyst, Polysun och PV*SOL. I en studie från 2014 där några av dessa programvarupakets noggrannhet har jämförts konstateras en diskrepans i storleksordning sju till nio procent. Enligt samma rapport kan merparten av denna felberäknade elproduktion härledas till solcellsmodellen. Solcellsmodellen är den del av programvarupaketen som simulerar solcellens elproduktion utifrån värden på solinstrålning och solcellens temperatur. Det finns flera olika solcellsmodeller varav vissa påstås vara mer noggranna än andra. Det programvarupaket som sannolikt är vanligast förekommande vid projektering av solcellsanläggningar, PVsyst, använder inte den variant av solcellsmodell som påstås vara mest noggrann.  I det här examensarbetet utreds hur implementeringen av en ny och mer noggrann solcellsmodell i PVsyst skulle påverka lönsamhetsberäkningarna för kommersiella solcellsanläggningar i Sverige. Arbetet består av två delar varav den ena delen genererat indata till den andra. I den första delen av arbetet har den mer noggranna solcellsmodellen och den solcellsmodell som återfinns i PVsyst programmerats i MATLAB. Noggrannheten vid återskapande av elproduktion utifrån mätdata har beräknats och skillnaden i noggrannhet mellan solcellsmodellerna har utgjort indata till den andra delen av arbetet, lönsamhetsberäkningarna. Lönsamhetsberäkningarna i det här arbetet springer ur de yttre förutsättningar som identifierats för ett verkligt fall där intressenten utgörs av en icke-privat aktör med en markyta tillgänglig för en solcellsinstallation. Resultatet visar att med den nya solcellsmodellen erhålls ett två procent mer noggrant beräknad elproduktion vilket motsvarar i storleksordning en fjärdedel av den totala diskrepansen hos predikteringsverktyget PVsyst. Detta slår inte igenom i lönsamhetsberäkningen i någon betydande omfattning men skulle hela diskrepansen kunna elimineras möjliggör det användandet av en kalkylränta ökad med cirka en halv procent. I arbetet framgår också att kommersiella solcellsanläggningar redan idag kan vara lönsamma då ett positivt nuvärde beräknats utifrån en kalkylränta på fem procent för en fix anläggning som utnyttjar markytan maximalt. / Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, IPCC finds that the conditions for life on Earth are changing and that this change derives most likely to humans. The consequences claimed by other successful research initiatives to be of such magnitude that it is justified to speak of a new geological epoch, the Anthropocene. A significant driver of this change are human emissions of greenhouse gases, which to the part can be attributed to an electricity need. Photovoltaic is a technology with which electricity can be produced with significantly less greenhouse gas emissions than conventional techniques. The expansion of solar energy is thus a desirable environmental measure. The profitability of solar electricity has been an obstacle for the expansion, in particular for commercial establishments. In a sensitivity analysis performed in a study from 2014 which examines the profitability of photovoltaic (PV) plants in Sweden shows that the estimated production of electricity in the first year is the factor, second only to the initial investment cost, which has the greatest impact on the profitability calculations. In calculating the PV electricity different methods with different accuracy are used. The most accurate method involves the use of commercial software packages like PVsyst, Polysun, and PV * SOL. In a study from 2014 the accuracy of some of the above mentioned program packages was compared and notes a discrepancy in the order of seven to nine percent. According to the same report, the majority of this miscalculated power generation is attributable to the solar cell model. The solar cell model is the part of the software packages that simulate the solar cell power generation based on values of solar radiation and the solar cell temperature. There are several different solar cell models, some of which are claimed to be more accurate than others. The software package that is likely to be the most prevalent in the planning of photovoltaic plants, PVsyst, does not use the variant of the solar cell model that is claimed to be the most accurate. This thesis investigates how the implementation of a novel and more accurate solar cell model in PVsyst would affect the profitability calculations for commercial PV plants in Sweden. The work can be divided into two parts, where the first part generates input data to the other. In the first part, the more accurate solar cell model and the solar cell model that can be found in PVsyst are programmed in MATLAB. The accuracy of reconstruction of power generation based on measurement data is calculated and the difference between the solar cell models are input to the second part of the work, the profitability calculations.  The profitability calculations in this work springs from the outer conditions identified for a real case where the interested party consists of a non - private operator with a ground area available for a solar installation. The results show that the new solar cell model is two percent more carefully when calculating the electricity generation, which corresponds in order of a quarter of the total discrepancy of prediction tool PVsyst. This does not strike through in the profitability calculation to any significant extent but would the whole discrepancy be eliminated it would allow the use of a discount rate increased by about half a percent. The work also shows that commercial photovoltaic systems today can be profitable. A positive net present value was calculated based on a discount rate of five percent for a fix installation that cover the whole area.

The City of Stockholm has decided to invest in renewable energy and especially in photovoltaics. The objective of this thesis is to investigate the photovoltaic potential on roof areas that the city possesses and to further investigate some buildings of the Property Management Department. The thesis also compares some existing photovoltaic plants with the solar irradiance map which shows available roof area on each building in Stockholm. The report ends with a literature study about the climate impact and greenhouse gas emissions of photovoltaic. The total available roof area suitable for photovoltaic plants is estimated to 700 000 m2, with a potential electricity production of 110 GWh per year. This corresponds to 17 % of the City of Stockholm’s yearly electricity consumption. A selection of sport facilities and fire stations owned by the Property Management Department has been investigated and 13 of the 33 buildings have roof areas which are well suited for photovoltaics. The potential electricity production from these buildings is estimated to 1 050 MWh per year. The 5 existing plants investigated occupies on average 49 % of the roof area which is available according to the solar irradiance map. In a life cycle perspective, photovoltaics purchased on the global market are expected to cause greenhouse gas emissions of 45 g CO2-eq/kWh.

Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Univ., 2003. / Härtill 9 uppsatser.

This thesis was conducted to study Bertegruppens vision of being a business group self-sufficient on electrical energy. The scope was to investigate the potential of the vision being realized in a near future by adding solar energy to the existing energy production mix. Examinations of the energy need and the consumption pattern at the different companies were made by studying hourly data from the electricity supplier. Future energy need was determined during interviews and study visits, where potential areas for solar modules also were identified. Global solar radiation data was collected fromthe STRÅNG model, provided by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute. These data were inserted to the micro power simulation tool HOMER ENERGY, along with solar module parameters from a solar energy installer Bertegruppen has initiated discussions with. The simulations resulted in potential solar energy production for a maximized and an adapted case for each company. In the adapted case, the implications from the Swedish solar energy market were considered while in the maximized case they were not. The simulation output data were then processed in the computational tool MATLAB, along with the hourly data over the electrical energy consumption at each company. At last economical calculations were carried out for the maximized and adapted case for each company, based on the Levelized Cost of Energy method. By adapting the maximized solar cell systems at each company, expand the hydropower station according to the plans, add diary-residues from Sia Glass to the biogas plant and account for the electrical energy bought from other hydropower stations in Suseån within the guarantees of origin system, Bertegruppen would produce 50.8 percent of their electrical energy need in 2021. For the adapted solarcell systems, the share would be 46.3 percent. The maximized solar cell systems resulted in a LCOE of 0.522 kr/kWh for Bertegruppen at a present value of 1 934 tkr.The LCOE for the adapted solar cell systems would be 0.529 kr/kWh at a presentvalue of 823 tkr.

The solar power accounts for only 0.2% of the Swedish power production in 2019. However, the solar power market is growing at a fast rate. Solar power production needs to be utilized instantly locally, for example in a building or else it is fed to the grid. Therefore, a challenge is how to utilize as much solar power as possible. This study aims to answer how solar panels should be placed in an optimal way in order to meet the load in a building similar to Vasakronan's property Kransen 2 in Uppsala. Two types of measures are used in the study to evaluate the solar power systems. The measure self-consumption describes the amount of solar production that is instantly used in a building. The measure self-sufficiency describes how much of the consumed solar power that covers the building's total load. The solar power production varies during the day. Therefore, the placement of panels affects the production profile during the day. The methodology in this study consists of a simulation model which provides optimal solar power systems regards to self-consumption and self-sufficiency. An economic model is also developed which calculates the payback time of solar power investments. The results shows that self-sufficiency is an important measure in order to increase the matching between a building's load and solar power production, and thereby reduce the proportion of purchased electricity from the grid. A solar power system should be optimized with regards to high self-sufficiency, and use the self-consumption to measure the amount of overproduction a system would have. A high self-sufficiency also provides a shorter payback time due to less amount of purchased electricity. The value and the relationship between self-consumption and self-sufficiency depends on the size of the system installed power.

This thesis aims to compare the performance of building integrated PV to “market leading” building applied PV and determine which technology is the most profitable. A case study is conducted of the real estate company Vasakronan’s two buildings Magasin X and Celsius which have both building-integrated PV in the facade and building-applied PV on the roof. The power output from the building-integrated PV systems compared to the building-applied PV systems is studied for each of the four seasons of the year. The system design including technical specifications for the modules and inverters as well as relevant weather data for Uppsala was implemented in the simulation software SAM. By simulating the PV systems in SAM an expected power profile is generated which in comparison with the actual power output from the PV systems could indicate if they are performing optimally. A Life Cycle costing (LCC) analysis is performed to give an understanding of the economic profitability of the different technologies over time. To include the perspective of the challenges in expanding the market for building integrated PV in Sweden, two interviews are conducted.  The results show that the BIPV generates more energy than the BAPV per square meter during the winter. During the spring and autumn, the weather conditions have a great impact on the perfor- mance of the solar modules. During sunny days of spring the temperature of the modules increase which decrease their efficiency and hence the generated power. The results also indicate that the actual power output from both the BIPV and the BAPV overall are performing as expected from the theoretically generated power in SAM. There are cases where the facade-integrated photovoltaics exceed its theoretical power output values. In contrast, roof-applied photovoltaics exhibit a closer correlation with theoretical values, although with a tendency to underperform overall.The life cycle cost analysis indicates that for both buildings, Magasin X and Celsius, only the BAPV system is profitable. In contrast, the BIPV installation is not cost-effective without subsidies. However, as shown in the sensitivity analysis, the electricity price is a factor which has a large impact on the profitability of the system. With a doubled electricity price the entire solar cell installation of Mag- asin X has a pay-back time of 10.6 years and is considered profitable. It can also be concluded that there is a lack of knowledge of how to implement BIPV in the most efficient way as well as what amount of energy the BIPV systems are expected to generate. To expand the BIPV market, stakeholders need to share their knowledge and a standardized process will need to be developed for choosing BIPV for new buildings. Subventions can motivate companies to implement BIPV in practice which is crucial for the spreading of such knowledge and the future development of BIPV.

Med ett statligt investeringsstöd och ett kommande förslag på skattereduktion för inmatning av förnybar el på elnätet, spås en fortsatt stor ökning av nätanslutna solcellsanläggningar. Det fortsatt sjunkande priset på nyckelfärdiga solcellssystem på grund av ökad konkurrens och massproduktion ger ytterligare anledning att tro på ett ökat intresse.Syftet med rapporten är därför att, utifrån fortsatt förväntad ökning av nätanslutna anläggningar i tätort, undersöka hur dessa påverkar spänningen i elnätet vid både enfasig som trefasig anslutning samt hur belastningsförlusterna påverkas vid ändrad effektriktning. Målet är att resultatet ska kunna ge elnätsbolaget en bra grund för vidare utredning.Den standard som ligger till grund för utredningen är SS-EN 50160 som behandlar spänningens egenskaper i elnät för allmän distribution. Från den hämtas krav på spänningens nivå samt tillåten spänningsobalans i nätet och utöver dessa används rekommendationer från rapporten MIKRO - anslutning av mikroproduktion till konsumtionsanläggningar från Svensk Energi.Programvara som används för att genomföra simuleringar och beräkningar av nätanslutna solcellssystem är dp-Power från företaget Digpro. Däri kan befintligt nät och dess kunder få solcellsanläggningar anslutna enfasigt eller trefasigt och nätberäkningar utföras med olika märkeffekt och effektfaktor. Mätarställningar för året 2013 har bearbetats för att ta fram en lägsta effekt under en timme, med målet att få fram den dag på året då lägst förbrukning sker.Fem driftscenarion utarbetats. Tre scenarion behandlar 3,5 kW enfasig anslutning där inkoppling sker på samma fas och under samma gruppledning, samma fas men olika gruppledningar samt ett scenario där varje solcellsanläggning delges en specifik fas i ett försök att uppnå symmetri och anslutning sker gruppledning för gruppledning. De två återstående gäller trefasig anslutning där första scenariot gäller en märkeffekt på 3,5 kW och varje gruppledning fylls i en bestämd ordning och sist används en märkeffekt på 8 kW med liknande val av inkopplingsmetod.Resultatet visar på tidiga problem vid anslutning av enfasiga solcellsanläggningar. I första scenariot sker en otillåten spänningsnivå i en anslutningspunkt redan efter fem anslutna anläggningar. Resterande enfas scenarion visar även de på problem men inte i lika stor utsträckning. Trefasig anslutning ger desto bättre resultat, alla kunder i området kan ansluta.Den viktigaste slutsatsen man kan dra är att enfasig anslutning av solcellsanläggning inte rekommenderas. Även om man försöker delge en specifik fas för att försöka skapa symmetri, kan det komma att orsaka problem i ett tidigt skede. Utförda driftscenarion påvisar även ett antal svaga punkter i nätet där spänningsökningen blir kraftigare jämfört med övriga anslutningspunkter. / With government investment aid and a future proposal on a tax relief for the input of renewable electricity on the grid, predicts a continued large increase in grid-connected photovoltaic systems. The continued drop in price for turnkey photovoltaic systems due to increased competition and mass production provides further reason to expect an increasing interest.The purpose of this report is therefore, based on expected continued increase in grid-connected installations in urban areas, to examine how these affect the voltage in the mains at both single-phase and three-phase connection as well as how load losses are affected by the reversed power flow. The goal is that the result should be able to provide power companies a good foundation for further investigation.The standard which form the basis for the investigation is SS-EN 50160 which target the voltage characteristics of electricity grids for general distribution. Based on the standard, requirements on voltage level and allowable voltage unbalance in the grid is retrieved and furthermore the recommendations from the report MICRO - the connection of micro production to consumption facilities from the Swedish Energy is used.Software used to perform simulations and calculations of grid-connected photovoltaic systems is dp-Power from the company Digpro. Inside the program existing grid and its customers may receive photovoltaic plants connected by single-phase or three-phase, and grid calculations can be performed with a variation of rated power depending on the operational scenario. True meter readings for the year 2013 have been processed to produce a highest and lowest power consumption during an hour.Five operating scenarios have been prepared. Three scenarios deals with 3.5 kW single-phase connection, where the connection is made in the same phase and the same feeder cable, the same phase but different feeder cable and a scenario where every photovoltaic system was appointed a specific phase in an attempt to achieve symmetry and connection takes place in one feeder cable at a time. The two remaining covers three-phase connection where the first scenario concerns a rated power of 3.5 kW, and finally a rated output of 8 kW.The results show early problems when connecting single-phase photovoltaic systems. In the first scenario, an unauthorized voltage level occurs in an access point after only five connected appliances. The remaining single-phase scenarios also demonstrate problems but not to the same extent. Three-phase connection provides a much better result and everyone in the area can connect their PV system. The main conclusion to be drawn is that the single-phase connection of PV systems is not advised. Even if you try to assign a specific phase in an attempt to create symmetry, it may come to cause problems at an early stage. Attempted operational scenarios also demonstrates a number of weak points in the grid where the voltage increase will be more powerful compared to other locations.

I dagsläget erbjuder ett flertal energibolag produkter och tjänster som är relaterade till mikroproduktion av solel vilket kan verka irrationellt då en minskad energianvändning hos företagets kunder leder till minskad lönsamhet för kärnverksamheten. En ökande efterfrågan på mikroproducerande anläggningar skapar därför ett behov av förändring av företagens nuvarande affärsmodeller. Solceller och distribuerad elproduktion växer idag fram som en ny marknad och utgör en ny konkurrensfaktor inom energibranschen. Denna konkurrensfaktor måste företagen ta hänsyn till för att inte ta skada på längre sikt allt eftersom marknaden utvecklas. Syftet med detta arbete är att undersöka hur energibolag kan utveckla sina affärsmodeller för att på ett hållbart sätt främja distribuerad elproduktion och mikroproduktion av solel. I arbetet har det identifierats sex olika affärsmodeller som används i olika delar av världen för att sprida solcellsteknologier. Dessa är 1) kundägande som innebär att kunden äger sin solcellsanläggning efter leverans, 2) samordnat ägande där ett energibolag eller en tredjepartsfirma samordnar och driver ett solcellsprojekt med ett flertal ägare eller kunder, 3) tredjepartsägande som innebär att ett tjänsteföretag erbjuder helhetslösningar till slutkonsumenter och finansierar detta genom en tredje part, 4) integrerad försäljning där solceller säljs som tillval eller extrautrustning till andra produkter, 5) nätinmatning som innebär att all producerad el matas in på nätet till en hög ersättning samt 6) modulbaserade värdeerbjudanden där kunden kan välja mellan olika paket av produkter och tjänster som bygger vidare på varandra. Inom den teoretiska referensramen kunde vidare de fyra grupperna kundrelaterade-, leverantörsrelaterade-, styrmedelsrelaterade- och tekniska barriärer identifieras mot spridning av solceller och mikroproduktion. Totalt identifierades 17 teoretiska barriärer. Efter en inledande litteraturgenomgång kunde en lämplig metod bestående av tre olika delar väljas ut för den empiriska delen av arbetet. En e-fokusgruppsdiskussion ligger tillsammans med skrivbordsforskning till grund för en kartläggning av omgivande möjligheter och hot. En fokusgruppsdiskussion bedömdes ge en bra kombination av bredd och djup och genomfördes online då detta är mindre resurskrävande och kan nå geografiskt spridda respondenter. Skrivbordsforskning bedömdes vara ett bra komplement till e-fokusgruppsdiskussionen. För att kunna studera de nuvarande affärsmodellerna mer djupgående genomfördes även en fallstudie bestående av fem intervjuer på ett svenskt energibolag som arbetar med både elhandel och solcellsförsäljning samt är nätägare. Det empiriska arbetet resulterade i en kartläggning av 38 möjligheter och 27 hot som energibolag ställs inför när marknaden för distribuerad elproduktion och mikroproduktion av solel expanderar. För att energiföretagen ska kunna förändra sina affärsmodeller finns det ett behov av omvärldsförändringar gällande politik och forskning. Energiföretagen borde dock kunna förekomma en förändring mot en mer distribuerad elmarknad och implementera nya affärsmodeller redan idag. Samtidigt bör det redan i nuläget finnas förutsättningar för företagen att arbeta för att påverka både politiken och forskningen genom exempelvis branschorganisationer. Det kan utifrån resultatet i detta arbete konstateras att mikroproduktion är ett framväxande substitut till traditionell elhandel som hotar företag inom flera verksamheter i elbranschen. Svenska företags sätt att hantera detta nya marknadshot är inte hållbart och behöver förändras. Rapporten presenterar slutligen tre olika riktningar som energiföretagens affärsmodeller kan utvecklas mot. / Several utility companies are today offering products and services related to microgeneration of solar electricity which may seem irrational since a decreased usage of energy of a customer will lead to a decreased profitability for the core business. An increased demand for microgenerating facilities therefore creates a need for change of the utility companies’ current business models. Solar cells and distributed electricity generation are today developing into new markets that constitutes a new competitive force within the energy sector. The companies need to take this competitive force into account if they are not to be harmed in the long-term as the market develops. The aim of this thesis is to examine how the utility companies can develop their business models in order to support distributed electricity generation and microgeneration of solar electricity in a sustainable way. Six different business models have been identified that are used in different parts of the world in order to deploy solar cell technologies. These are 1) customer owned that implies that the customer owns the solar cell facility after delivery, 2) community owned where an utility company or a third-party actor coordinates and runs a solar cell project with several owners or customers, 3) third-party owned that implies that a service company offers a complete solution to end customers and finances this through a third-party actor, 4) cross-selling where solar cells are sold as extra equipment or add-ons to other products, 5) host-owned feed-in that implies that all the generated electricity are fed in to the grid for a high compensation and also 6) modular based value propositions where a customer can choose between different packages of products and services that builds upon each other. The four groups customer related-, supplier related-, policy related- and technology related barriers against diffusion of solar cells and microgeneration could be identified within the theoretical framework of the thesis. In total, 17 theoretical barriers could be identified. After an initial study of literature, a proper method constituted by three different parts could be chosen for the empirical work of the thesis. An online focus group discussion is together with desk research providing a foundation for a mapping of contextual opportunities and threats. A focus group discussion was decided to provide a proper combination of width and depth and was executed online since this demands less resources and can reach geographically spread respondents. Desk research was decided to be a proper supplement for the e-focus group. In order to be able to study the current business models in more depth, a case study was also executed constituting five different interviews at a Swedish utility company that offers sales of electricity and solar cells and also is a grid owner. The empirical work resulted in a mapping of 38 opportunities and 27 threats that utility companies are faced with as the market for distributed electricity generation and microgeneration of solar electricity expands. There is also a need for contextual changes regarding policies and research as the utility companies are changing their business models. Though, utility companies should be able to anticipate a change towards a more distributed electricity market and implement new business models already today. There should already exist a basis for the utility companies to influence both politics and research through for example industry associations. It can through the result of this thesis be found that microgeneration is a growing substitute to traditional sales of electricity that threatens companies in several activities in the electricity sector. The way Swedish companies handle this new market threat is not sustainable and needs to be changed. This thesis finally presents three different directions that the business models of the utility companies can develop towards.

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