O objetivo do mapeamento de QTL (Quantitative Trait Loci ) e identificar sua posição no genoma, isto e, identificar em qual cromossomo esta e qual sua localização nesse cromossomo, bem como estimar seus efeitos genéticos. Uma vez que as localizações dos QTL não são conhecidas a priori, marcadores são usados frequentemente para auxiliar no seu mapeamento. Alguns marcadores podem estar altamente ligados a um ou mais QTL e, dessa forma eles podem mostrar uma alta associação com a característica fenotípica. O efeito genético do QTL e os valores fenotípicos de uma característica quantitativa são normalmente descritos por um modelo linear. Uma vez que as localizações dos QTL não são conhecidas a priori, marcadores são utilizados para representá-los. Em geral, e utilizado um numero grande de marcadores. Esses marcadores são utilizados no modelo linear para proceder ao processo de associação; dessa forma o modelo especificado contem um numero elevado de parâmetros a serem estimados. No entanto, e esperado que muitos destes parâmetros sejam não significativos, necessitando de um tratamento especial. Na estimação bayesiana esse problema e tratado por meio da estrutura de distribuições a priori utilizada. Um parâmetro que e esperado assumir o valor zero (não significativo) e naturalmente especificado por meio de uma distribuição que coloque um peso maior no zero, encolhimento bayesiano. Neste trabalho e proposta a utilização de dois modelos que utilizam distribuições a priori de encolhimento. Um dos modelos esta relacionado com o uso da distribuição a priori Laplace (Lasso bayesiano) e o outro com a Horseshoe (Estimador Horseshoe). Para avaliar o desempenho dos modelos na determinação da associação entre marcadores e QTL, realizou-se um estudo de simulação. Foi analisada a associação entre marcadores e QTL utilizando três características fenotípicas: produção de grãos, altura da espiga e altura da planta. Comparou-se os resultados obtidos neste trabalho com analises feitas na literatura na detecção dos marcadores associados a essas características. A implementação computacional dos algoritmos foi feita utilizando a linguagem C e executada no pacote estatístico R. O programa implementado na linguagem C e apresentado e disponibilizado. Devido a interação entre as linguagens de programação C e R, foi possível executar o programa no ambiente R. / The objective of the mapping of quantitative trait loci (QTL) is to identify its position in the genome, ie, identify which chromosome is and what is its location in the chromosome, as well as to estimate their genetic eects. Since the location of QTL are not known a priori, markers are often used to assist in it mapping. Some markers may be closely linked to one or more QTL, and thus they may show a strong association with the phenotypic trait. The genetic eect of QTL and the phenotypic values of a quantitative trait are usually described by a linear model. Since the QTL locations are not known a priori, markers are used to represent them. Generally is used a large number of markers. These markers are used in the linear model to make the process of association and thus the model specied contains a large number of parameters to be estimated. However, it is expected that many of these parameters are not signicant, requiring a special treatment. In Bayesian estimation this problem is treated through structure priori distribution used. A parameter that is expected to assume the value zero (not signicant) is naturally specied by means of a distribution that put more weight at zero, bayesian shrinkage. This paper proposes the use of two models using priori distributions to shrinkage. One of the models is related to the use of priori distribution Laplace (bayesian Lasso) and the other with Horseshoe (Horseshoe Estimator). To evaluate the performance of the models to determine the association between markers and QTL, we performed a simulation study. We analyzed the association between markers and QTL using three phenotypic traits: grain yield, ear height and plant height. We compared the results obtained in this study with analyzes in the literature on the detection of markers associated with these characteristics. The computational implementation of the algorithms was done using the C language and executed the statistical package R. The program is implemented in C languages presented and made available. Due to the interaction between the programming languages C and R, it was possible execute the program in the environment R.

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Un individu est dit consanguin si ses parents sont apparentés et s’il existe donc dans sa généalogie au moins une boucle de consanguinité aboutissant à un ancêtre commun. Le coefficient de consanguinité de l’individu est par définition la probabilité pour qu’à un point pris au hasard sur le génome, l’individu ait reçu deux allèles identiques par descendance qui proviennent d’un seul allèle présent chez un des ancêtres communs. Ce coefficient de consanguinité est un paramètre central de la génétique qui est utilisé en génétique des populations pour caractériser la structure des populations, mais également pour rechercher des facteurs génétiques impliqués dans les maladies. Le coefficient de consanguinité était classiquement estimé à partir des généalogies, mais des méthodes ont été développées pour s’affranchir des généalogies et l’estimer à partir de l’information apportée par des marqueurs génétiques répartis sur l’ensemble du génome.Grâce aux progrès des techniques de génotypage haut-débit, il est possible aujourd’hui d’obtenir les génotypes d’un individu sur des centaines de milliers de marqueurs et d’utiliser ces méthodes pour reconstruire les régions d’identité par descendance sur son génome et estimer un coefficient de consanguinité génomique. Il n’existe actuellement pas de consensus sur la meilleure stratégie à adopter sur ces cartes denses de marqueurs en particulier pour gérer les dépendances qui existent entre les allèles aux différents marqueurs (déséquilibre de liaison). Dans cette thèse, nous avons évalué les différentes méthodes disponibles à partir de simulations réalisées en utilisant de vraies données avec des schémas de déséquilibre de liaison réalistes. Nous avons montré qu’une approche intéressante consistait à générer plusieurs sous-cartes de marqueurs dans lesquelles le déséquilibre de liaison est minimal, d’estimer un coefficient de consanguinité sur chacune des sous-cartes par une méthode basée sur une chaîne de Markov cachée implémentée dans le logiciel FEstim et de prendre comme estimateur la médiane de ces différentes estimations. L’avantage de cette approche est qu’elle est utilisable sur n’importe quelle taille d’échantillon, voire sur un seul individu, puisqu’elle ne demande pas d’estimer les déséquilibres de liaison. L’estimateur donné par FEstim étant un estimateur du maximum de vraisemblance, il est également possible de tester si le coefficient de consanguinité est significativement différent de zéro et de déterminer la relation de parenté des parents la plus vraisemblable parmi un ensemble de relations. Enfin, en permettant l’identification de régions d’homozygoties communes à plusieurs malades consanguins, notre stratégie peut permettre l’identification des mutations récessives impliquées dans les maladies monogéniques ou multifactorielles.Pour que la méthode que nous proposons soit facilement utilisable, nous avons développé le pipeline, FSuite, permettant d’interpréter facilement les résultats d’études de génétique de populations et de génétique épidémiologique comme illustré sur le panel de référence HapMap III, et sur un jeu de données cas-témoins de la maladie d’Alzheimer. / An individual is said to be inbred if his parents are related and if his genealogy contains at least one inbreeding loop leading to a common ancestor. The inbreeding coefficient of an individual is defined as the probability that the individual has received two alleles identical by descent, coming from a single allele present in a common ancestor, at a random marker on the genome. The inbreeding coefficient is a central parameter in genetics, and is used in population genetics to characterize the population structure, and also in genetic epidemiology to search for genetic factors involved in recessive diseases.The inbreeding coefficient was traditionally estimated from genealogies, but methods have been developed to avoid genealogies and to estimate this coefficient from the information provided by genetic markers distributed along the genome.With the advances in high-throughput genotyping techniques, it is now possible to genotype hundreds of thousands of markers for one individual, and to use these methods to reconstruct the regions of identity by descent on his genome and estimate a genomic inbreeding coefficient. There is currently no consensus on the best strategy to adopt with these dense marker maps, in particular to take into account dependencies between alleles at different markers (linkage disequilibrium).In this thesis, we evaluated the different available methods through simulations using real data with realistic patterns of linkage disequilibrium. We highlighted an interesting approach that consists in generating several submaps to minimize linkage disequilibrium, estimating an inbreeding coefficient of each of the submaps based on a hidden Markov method implemented in FEstim software, and taking as estimator the median of these different estimates. The advantage of this approach is that it can be used on any sample size, even on an individual, since it requires no linkage disequilibrium estimate. FEstim is a maximum likelihood estimator, which allows testing whether the inbreeding coefficient is significantly different from zero and determining the most probable mating type of the parents. Finally, through the identification of homozygous regions shared by several consanguineous patients, our strategy permits the identification of recessive mutations involved in monogenic and multifactorial diseases.To facilitate the use of our method, we developed the pipeline FSuite, to interpret results of population genetics and genetic epidemiology studies, as shown on the HapMap III reference panel, and on a case-control Alzheimer's disease data.

Genome-wide association studies have greatly improved our understanding of the contribution of common variants to the genetic architecture of complex traits. However, two major limitations have been highlighted. First, common variant associations typically do not identify the causal variant and/or the gene that it is exerting its effect on to influence a trait. Second, common variant associations usually consist of variants with small effects. As a consequence, it is more challenging to harness their translational impact. Association studies of rare variants and complex traits may be able to help address these limitations. Empirical population genetic data shows that deleterious variants are rare. More specifically, there is a very strong depletion of common protein truncating variants (PTVs, commonly referred to as loss-of-function variants) in the genome, a group of variants that have been shown to have large effect on gene function, are enriched for severe disease-causing mutations, but in other instances may actually be protective against disease. This thesis is divided into three parts dedicated to the study of protein truncating variants, their medical relevance, and their functional consequences. First, I present statistical, bioinformatic, and computational methods developed for the study of protein truncating variants and their association to complex traits, and their functional consequences. Second, I present application of the methods to a number of case-control and quantitative trait studies discovering new variants and genes associated to breast and ovarian cancer, type 1 diabetes, lipids, and metabolic traits measured with NMR spectroscopy. Third, I present work on improving annotation of protein truncating variants by studying their functional consequences. Taken together, these results highlight the utility of interrogating protein truncating variants in medical and functional genomic studies.