Stereotyper påverkar människors attityder och förväntningar. Människor identifierar sig lättare med personer av sitt eget kön. Chefsstereotypen gör det svårare för kvinnor att avancera. Vinjettstudien undersökte, i en neutral organisationskontext, om den kvinnliga chefens ledaregenskaper bedömdes sämre än den manliga vid misstag. Chefens kön och chefens agerande manipulerades för att upptäcka attityder. MellangruppsANOVOR testade Deltagarens kön x Chefens kön x Chefens agerande mot beroendevariablerna som var könsstereotypa egenskaper som manipulativ, omhändertagande, demokratisk och förebild. Sex items behandlades också i övriga resultat. I det tillgängliga urvalet fanns 269 deltagare, 148 var kvinnor. Deltagarens kön hade fler effekter där männen uppfattade chefen som mer demokratisk och bättre förebild än kvinnorna. Ingen statistisk skillnad avseende chefens kön beroende på misstag fanns. Männen hade lättare att relatera till chefsstereotypen än kvinnorna. Slutsatsen är att deltagarens kön har större påverkan hur chefens ledaregenskaper bedöms vid misstag än chefens egna kön.

Après la conquête de Constantinople en 1453, la nécessité de recueillir des informations mises à jour sur la ville et ses nouveaux dirigeants est devenue une nécessité. Non seulement la documentation disponible sur les Turcs était obsolète, les Ottomans eux-mêmes étaient différents de la dynastie Seldjouqide rencontrée pendant les Croisades. Européens et asiatiques, musulmans et chrétiens, turcs et grecs, cerner la société ottomane était une tâche ardue qui demandait un fin observateur. Les Ottomans étaient impliqués dans presque toutes les affaires européennes et méditerranéennes, soit par la formation d'alliances, des déclarations de guerre, la création d’états vassaux ou l'établissement de routes commerciales. Le Saint Empire, la France et les villes italiennes furent parmi les premiers à envoyer des émissaires à Constantinople. Les récits des voyageurs offrent une variété de témoignages de première main sur la manière dont la capitale de l'Empire ottoman était régie des activités de la vie quotidienne jusqu’à la vision politique du sultan. L'identité du voyageur joue un rôle important dans la détermination du contenu de son rapport. Un ambassadeur, un espion, voit les choses différemment d'un marchand ou d'un moine. La perception de la réalité ottomane elle-même évolue du début à la fin du séjour. La représentation du Turc moyen, du sultan, des Grecs et d'autres minorités à Constantinople donne un aperçu de la représentation sociale et politique de soi et de l’autre en Europe pendant la Renaissance. Les comparaisons fréquentes avec l'Empire romain montrent que, étonnement, les Ottomans héritent de certaines caractéristiques qui expliquent leur âge d'or avec Mehmet le Conquérant et Suleyman le Magnifique. Le résultat du croisement des récits conduit à la conclusion inattendue que non seulement Constantinople devenait Istanbul, mais elle renouait avec ses racines romaines. / After Constantinople’s conquest in 1453, the need to gather updated information on the city under its new rulers became a necessity. Not only the available documentation on the Turks was obsolete, the Ottomans themselves were different from the Seljuk dynasty encountered during the Crusades. Both Asian and European, Muslim and Christian, Turks and Greeks, defining the Ottoman society was a hard task that needed a journey and a shrewd observer. The Ottomans were involved in almost all the European and Mediterranean affairs whether through forming alliances, waging wars, creating puppet states or establishing trade routes. The Holy Roman Empire, France and the Italian city states were among the first to send emissaries to Constantinople. The reports gathered by the travelers offer a variety of first-hand eye witnesses of how the capital of the Ottoman Empire is ruled from daily life activities to the political vision of the sultan. The identity of the traveler plays a great role in determining the content of his report. An ambassador, a spy see things differently from a merchant or a monk. The perception of the Ottoman reality itself evolves from the beginning of the journey to its end. The representation of the average Turk, the sultan, the Greeks and other minorities in Constantinople gives a great insight about the social and political representation of self and others in Europe during the Renaissance. The frequent comparisons with the Roman Empire shows that, surprisingly, the Ottomans are inheriting some characteristics that explain their golden age with Mehmed the Conqueror and Suleiman the Magnificent. The result of crossing the traveler’s accounts leads to the unexpected conclusion that not only Constantinople is becoming Istanbul, it is reclaiming its Roman roots.

The purpose of this research is to analyze the differences between women and men and their selfies on the popular social media application Instagram. Past research and notions in popular culture show that women take more selfies than men do, and that they place more time and effort into their selfies than men do. The goal is to show that women may not solely do the action of taking and posting selfies and that the stereotype of taking and posting selfies being a feminine action should not be prevalent. We conducted a thorough visual content analysis of selfies on Instagram taken and posted by twelve of the most notorious celebrities who take selfies, including Kim Kardashian-West, Justin Bieber, LeBron James, and Kylie Jenner. Through research that on self-portraits in art history and through detailed analysis of the selfies of both the female and male celebrities, the research demonstrates that the stereotype of only women taking and posting selfies on social media is transient.

abstract: Prejudice and discrimination toward gender non-conforming individuals is prevalent and extreme in today’s society. This prejudice can manifest in social exclusion, bullying, and victimization, or physical and sexual assault, and can result in negative social, psychological, academic, and physical health outcomes (e.g., depression, anxiety, suicidality). Thus, it is important to understand the perpetrators of gender expression-based aggression and discrimination. In two studies, I addressed how and why people experience prejudice toward gender non-conforming individuals. Using an affordance management theoretical framework, Study 1 identified threats young adults perceived from gender non-conforming peers. There were differences in perceived threats to personal freedoms, social coordination, and values for gender conforming and non-conforming peers, and these perceptions differed by the political ideology of the perceiver. Study 2 explored children’s threat perceptions associated with gender non-conformity. Children perceived threats to social coordination from gender non-conforming peers but not threats to moral values. Results from both studies supported the use of this theoretical framework for studying prejudice toward gender non-conformity. Together, these studies provide unique information about adults’ and children’s reasons for prejudice toward gender non-conforming peers. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Family and Human Development 2020

Although federal laws prohibit employment discrimination, potential discrimination against Muslim women wearing the hijab is possible. The purpose of this study was to describe how religious stereotypes and religious artifacts may influence hiring and what the origin of this phenomenon is. A phenomenological perspective was used in this research focusing on the participant's perceptions in comprehending the meaning of having a Muslim woman wearing the hijab in a job interview and how/why this meaning is constructed. The phenomenon studied was the nature and range of stereotypes that recruiters hold about Muslim women wearing the hijab. Qualitative interviews with nine participants were conducted in the states of Illinois and Missouri in 2010. These participants were in charge of hiring in the educational and healthcare sectors. Five main themes from the interviews data were identified: (a) fear of Muslims, (b) hijab appearance vs.hijab functionality, (c) impact of cultural and religious differences, (d) stereotypes, and (e) discrimination in the United States. The findings have offered an opportunity to investigate, illustrate and document stereotypes on Muslim women wearing the hijab that could intervene during a hiring process. They have provided a glimpse into the stereotypes that recruiters hold about Muslim women wearing the hijab and the Muslim community as well. In particular, this study confirmed that there is a need to educate people in charge of hiring on how stereotypes may shape their decisions. The most distinctive finding of this study is the aesthetic aspect of the hijab. All the participants explicitly acknowledged the beauty of the hijab. This finding showed how complex the research participants' perceptions were about the hijab. How the appearance of the hijab could be viewed so positively and how its function was perceived negatively by them.

Negative stereotypes of aging, such as dependency, tend to paint a picture of older adults as frail or a burden on society. This study aimed to explore the relationship between the Fear of Dependency Scale and anxiety and depression, evaluating gender, age, and physical health as moderators. Findings suggest that age moderated the relationship between fear of dependency and depression and anxiety in women, with middle-aged women reporting the highest levels of depression and anxiety. Similarly, poor physical health in women with high fear of dependency being related to higher levels of depression and anxiety. Fear of dependency was related to higher levels of depression, but not anxiety in men. Age did not moderate the relationship between fear of dependency and mental health measures, but physical health did moderate the relationship. Men with poor perceived health and a high fear of dependency reported higher levels of depression.

Explicit gender bias has been found using both experiments and field studies to favor men in hiring, promotion, and career opportunities (Eagly & Carli, 2007), but experimental studies have been criticized for over generalizing results obtained from a "stranger-to-stranger" paradigm (Copus, 2005; Landy, 2008). Landy (2008) argues that gender biases become negligible when raters are familiar with ratees. Additionally, Landy questioned the use of implicit measures to examine bias. Implicit or unconscious bias refers to a cognitive preference for one category over another, such as taking longer to associate female terms with managerial terms on a computerized task, and has also been shown to impact organizational decision making regarding women (Rudman & Kilianski, 2000). Implicit bias measures are often more predictive when bias may be socially undesirable. The goal of this research is to examine the effects of familiarity on automatic or unconscious gender bias. Study 1 examines associations between implicit and explicit measures of gender bias with evaluations of male and female job applicants who engage in agentic, negotiation behavior or not. It was expected that agentic (negotiating) female job applicants, compared to others, would suffer a backlash on ratings of communal traits and that this effect will be exacerbated by individual differences in implicit and explicit gender bias. An effect was found of negotiating being associated with higher agentic traits and lower overall ratings. Negotiating and gender did not interact, however the study did find women were rated as more communal than men. In Study 2 participants completed an Implicit Association Task (IAT) matching unfamiliar and familiar pictures of men and women with agentic and communal terms. It was expected that gender bias towards women would be stronger in the unfamiliar condition than in the familiar condition. Results indicated that there was a consistent bias against associating women with agentic terms and this effect was not influenced by familiarity. In Study 3, participants completed a gender-bias IAT and then read a scenario describing either a man or woman who is being evaluated for a promotion. They were asked to free recall positive and negative outcomes and attributes associated with the person in the scenario. It was expected that participants who have an implicit bias against women would remember negative events from the female scenario more easily than from the male scenario. There was a gender effect with participants remembering more negative events and less positive events when the employee was female compare to when the employee was male. Across all three studies differences were found between explicit and implicit measurements of gender bias. These three studies help us better understand relationships between implicit and explicit gender bias in the workplace. Additionally, Study 2 addressed criticism of gender bias findings ignoring familiarity.

The present study compared the effectiveness of different mentoring programs at reducing feelings of stereotype threat experienced by women in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) fields. Stereotype threat refers to the extra pressure a person feels to disprove a negative stereotype that applies to him or her. Because stereotype threat has been found to undermine performance and interest in stereotyped domains, it may be a key factor contributing to female underrepresentation in STEM fields. Mentors and proteges were placed in either a stereotype threat reduction condition in which mentors and proteges were encouraged to participate in discussions designed to reduce stereotype threat, an academic condition in which mentors and proteges were encouraged to discuss academic goals and challenges, or a non-academic condition in which mentors and proteges were encouraged to discuss the challenges of balancing non-school commitments. It was hypothesized that mentoring that focused specifically on stereotype threat reduction would be the most effective in reducing stereotype threat and increasing intentions to remain in STEM fields. In addition, it was hypothesized that stereotype threat reduction mentoring would be the most effective at increasing beliefs in an incremental theory of intelligence (i.e., the belief that intelligence can be developed through hard work) and decreasing beliefs in an entity theory of intelligence (i.e., the belief that intelligence is innate and is unalterable). Mentors were 36 male and 74 female upper-level STEM college students and proteges were 137 female lower-level STEM college students. Participants met online for 30 minutes, once per week, for 3 weeks. Results indicated that both mentors and proteges in the stereotype threat reduction mentoring condition reported feeling less stereotype threat in their STEM classes than mentors and proteges in the other mentoring conditions. Additionally, the frequency in which self-theories were discussed in the mentoring sessions partially mediated the effects of the stereotype threat reduction condition on proteges' feelings of stereotype threat in their STEM classes. Mentors and proteges in the stereotype threat reduction mentoring condition also reported endorsing incremental theories of intelligence more and endorsing entity theories of intelligence less than mentors and proteges in the other conditions. In summary, the present study's findings suggest that in order maximum stereotype threat reduction to occur in a mentoring relationship, mentors and proteges engage in activities and discussions designed to reduce stereotype threat. Given that prior research has found that decreased stereotype threat, decreased entity theories of intelligence, and increased incremental theories of intelligence are associated with greater interest and performance in STEM domains, the utilization of a stereotype threat reduction mentoring program can help address the underrepresentation of women in science, technology, engineering, and math related fields.

Children’s literature is a critical aspect during a child’s development; the messages portrayed in children’s books can affect the development of gender identity in young children and can affect how a child with act and perceive the world around them in the future (Tsao, 2008). Expanding on this research this study aimed to determine if award winning children’s literature contained implicit and explicit gender stereotypes and biases in the illustrations and text. The sample examined was Caldecott Award and Honor books from 2001 through 2014; the sample size was did not include biographies, autobiographies, informational books, concept books, poetry, and science fiction. This study only examined works of fiction and each book was examined, read, and analyzed. Following the methodology of various studies, a three part Data Collection Instrument was used: book identification, frequency analysis of illustrations, and a character analysis. This research attempted to answer the following questions: (1) Is there evidence of gender stereotypes in the written depiction of characters in Caldecott Award and Honor books award between 2001 and 2014?, (2) Is there evidence of gender stereotypes in the illustrated depictions of characters in Caldecott Award and Honor books award between 2001 and 2014?, and (3) Are males’ and females’ roles and attributes represented equally through the text and illustrations? This research aimed at examining whether gender biases and stereotypes still existed in the text and illustrations and if so, to what extent.

In this study I examine the processes of assimilation and acculturation of Peace Corps Volunteers (PCVs) abroad and their potential confrontations with the "Ugly American" stereotype. PCVs consciously and unconsciously decide how to fit in overseas based on their identity and personal methods self presentation. If met with adversity based on being subjected to the Ugly American stereotype, they resist urges to either fight to defend one's identity or shed the associated idiosyncrasies and blend in to the foreign culture. PCVs must maintain a sense of self and purpose while on their assignment. By interviewing a small sample of Returned Peace Corps Volunteers (RPCVs) I gain insight into the potential hardships encountered during their first few months in the service. I also use literature from both critical and instructional sources on the topics to supplement my inquiry. These critique and demonstrate the various methods RPCVs use to acclimate and find a reasonable balance for themselves in their positions. The goals of this paper are to increase awareness and understanding of the difficulties and hardships faced by those who joined the Peace Corps with the aim of spreading knowledge abroad, not only in their areas of specialization, but about Americans in general. / Master of Science