The thesis describes a program of research aimed at exploring the consequences of confronting potential perpetrators of discrimination with their own prejudice. An experimental paradigm was introduced that involved confronting advantaged group members with their own potential prejudices in a series of two studies. In the first study, White participants who admitted to some prejudice were, surprisingly, also more likely to genuinely reflect on and challenge their prejudice. A second experiment investigated the interpersonal consequences of stereotype threat in advantaged group members. Male participants were confronted with the possibility of confirming the negative stereotype that "men are sexist". The results indicated that male participants attempted to avoid confirmation of the negative stereotype by making a deliberate effort to appear nonsexist on a gender task. These findings contrast the results of stereotype threat theory found for disadvantaged group members and are discussed in terms of their implications for advantaged group members.

Previous research on stereotyping has focused on perceptions of and negative consequences for individuals who activate stereotypes based on their membership in one stigmatized group. In contrast, relatively little research has examined stereotyping following categorization of targets into more than one stigmatized group. This dissertation focuses on perceptions of individuals who activate more than one set of stereotypes. In particular, I focused on the combination of stereotypes associated with the older adult age group and the Black racial group - two stereotype sets which contain elements that directly contradict one another. To examine the interaction of these two sets of stereotypes, I examined perceptions of four types of targets: young Black men, young White men, old Black men, and old White men. In Chapter 1, I examine perceptions of anger and happiness on the faces of young and old Black and White men. These perceptions are examined among young (Study 1a) and old (Study 1b) perceivers. In Chapter 2, I attempt to bias these perceptions of facial emotion in line with race or age stereotypes using a categorization priming procedure. The final three studies examine more basic perceptions of these targets of interest. I examine current and projected trait-related perceptions of novel (Chapter 3) and famous (Chapter 4) young and old Black and White men at various points across the lifespan. Finally, in Chapter 5, I directly compare these four targets on a number of traits using a forced-choice comparison task for both current and projected ratings. Overall, the results of this dissertation suggest that race-based and age-based stereotypes combine via a process of selective inhibition. Specifically, old Black and White men are characterized according to the old age stereotypes which most strikingly contrast them against their younger counterparts. Compared with their corresponding young targets, this pattern results in relatively positive evaluations of older Black men, but relatively negative evaluations of older White men.

The current study identified eight distinct exercise stereotypes (athletes, runners, older adults, jocks, weightlifters, judgmental girls, overweight individuals, people who do yoga) through a pilot study. An adapted version of the prototype willingness model was then used to determine whether differences exist between exercisers and non-exercisers ratings of the eight various exerciser stereotypes. No significant differences were found, which further supports the positive exerciser stereotype. The adapted version of the PWM had large proportions of explained variance. MANOVA analyses showed that overweight individuals and weightlifters differed significantly in their opinions of other exercisers. Overweight individuals had negative ratings towards jocks, athletes and judgmental girls and weightlifters showed negative ratings of yoga participants. Both of these exercisers may benefit from a fitness center absent of these respective exercisers.

This essay is a gender analysis of some of the characters created by Agatha Christie. The aim is to investigate the occurrence of gender stereotypes and if traditional gender norms are challenged by men and/or women characters in Evil Under the Sun and The Body in the Library. Initially, there is an introduction to gender theories which includes the theorists Thomas Laqueur and Simone de Beauvoir among others. Laqueur presents the evolution of gender theories, specifically the two-sex model in which it was believed that sex is pervasive and thus the body rules the mind. Theories presented by him are vastly different from those of de Beauvoir who argues that the mind and body are separate. Other theorists which specifically deal with crime fiction and gender include Susan Rowland, who writes about the reformation of the detective and how the crime genre is gendered, and Gill Plain, who has been able to categorised Christie’s characters into three distinctive groups in which gender roles are clearly distinguishable. The conclusion reached is that male and female characters are portrayed both as adhering to gender roles, contemporary to the time at which the books were written, and as breaking them. However the outcomes and reactions differ depending on the character in question. Marple and Poirot appear to be well aware of the stereotypical way they are viewed and use it to appear less intimidating in order to hide their true nature as two sharp intellects.

There is growing concern that a widespread perception of accounting and accountants is discouraging individuals with the required skills and capabilities from entering the accounting profession. At the same time, an inappropriate perception may be attracting those who lack the required skills and capabilities. Research suggests that not only are perceptions of accounting and accountants very negative but that they may also be inaccurate and difficult to change. This thesis applies social psychology theory on stereotyping to assist in identifying why these perceptions are resistant to change. Stereotype theory suggests that strategies for changing perceptions are dependent on how and why the perceptions were formed. Through a questionnaire, this study sought to identify the perceptions and through interviews and focus groups, how and why they were formed. A questionnaire, interviews and focus groups were used to collect data from sixty-five people from four distinct groups. These groups included the general public, users of accounting services, young people making career decisions, and accountants themselves. Additional data was collected from a further three accounting educators. The application of stereotype theory has assisted in explaining why common perceptions of accounting and accountants have been so resistant to change and in identifying suitable intervention strategies. This study found that the perceptions people have of accounting and accountants are inaccurate. They are either too specific and hence unnecessarily restrictive and limiting, or alternatively the perceptions are so abstract and lacking in specificity that they are absorbed into a broader level category. In the first instance, a single experience is overgeneralised to represent a participant‟s understanding of accounting. In the second instance, accounting is overgeneralised to represent all activity of the broader category label. That the accounting profession, in general, has appeared to make little effort to correct these inaccurate perceptions and has failed to disseminate more widely the findings from academic research is of concern. Overgeneralised perceptions of accounting and accountants were found to be resistant to change for a number of reasons. Participants who created a very broad category label to represent their abstract understanding of accounting usually lacked the motivation and/or cognitive capacity to add specificity to their understanding. On the other hand, participants who based their perceptions of accounting on single exemplar models lacked an understanding of the skills and capabilities that accountants possessed and how these competencies could serve them. The influence of the high school curriculum was a further reason that perceptions were resistant to change. When members of the wider community had studied accounting at high school, their understanding of accounting was narrowly focused on the scorekeeping role of accounting. The perceptions of people who had studied accounting at high school, both currently and in the past, were the most resistant to change. The following interventions to change the perceptions people have of accounting and accountants are proposed. First it is necessary for the professional associations to articulate clearly the advice from the academic community on how the role of accountants and the nature of accounting have changed and to increase the awareness of these changes among their members. It is then necessary to communicate this information to the public by aligning the diverse range of accounting outputs with individual goals while explaining how accountants‟ training has changed to accommodate these more diverse roles. Finally, it is necessary to reconsider how accounting should be taught at high school, providing less emphasis on the scorekeeping role of accountants and increasing the emphasis on how accounting impacts everyday life.

There is growing concern that a widespread perception of accounting and accountants is discouraging individuals with the required skills and capabilities from entering the accounting profession. At the same time, an inappropriate perception may be attracting those who lack the required skills and capabilities. Research suggests that not only are perceptions of accounting and accountants very negative but that they may also be inaccurate and difficult to change. This thesis applies social psychology theory on stereotyping to assist in identifying why these perceptions are resistant to change. Stereotype theory suggests that strategies for changing perceptions are dependent on how and why the perceptions were formed. Through a questionnaire, this study sought to identify the perceptions and through interviews and focus groups, how and why they were formed. A questionnaire, interviews and focus groups were used to collect data from sixty-five people from four distinct groups. These groups included the general public, users of accounting services, young people making career decisions, and accountants themselves. Additional data was collected from a further three accounting educators. The application of stereotype theory has assisted in explaining why common perceptions of accounting and accountants have been so resistant to change and in identifying suitable intervention strategies. This study found that the perceptions people have of accounting and accountants are inaccurate. They are either too specific and hence unnecessarily restrictive and limiting, or alternatively the perceptions are so abstract and lacking in specificity that they are absorbed into a broader level category. In the first instance, a single experience is overgeneralised to represent a participant‟s understanding of accounting. In the second instance, accounting is overgeneralised to represent all activity of the broader category label. That the accounting profession, in general, has appeared to make little effort to correct these inaccurate perceptions and has failed to disseminate more widely the findings from academic research is of concern. Overgeneralised perceptions of accounting and accountants were found to be resistant to change for a number of reasons. Participants who created a very broad category label to represent their abstract understanding of accounting usually lacked the motivation and/or cognitive capacity to add specificity to their understanding. On the other hand, participants who based their perceptions of accounting on single exemplar models lacked an understanding of the skills and capabilities that accountants possessed and how these competencies could serve them. The influence of the high school curriculum was a further reason that perceptions were resistant to change. When members of the wider community had studied accounting at high school, their understanding of accounting was narrowly focused on the scorekeeping role of accounting. The perceptions of people who had studied accounting at high school, both currently and in the past, were the most resistant to change. The following interventions to change the perceptions people have of accounting and accountants are proposed. First it is necessary for the professional associations to articulate clearly the advice from the academic community on how the role of accountants and the nature of accounting have changed and to increase the awareness of these changes among their members. It is then necessary to communicate this information to the public by aligning the diverse range of accounting outputs with individual goals while explaining how accountants‟ training has changed to accommodate these more diverse roles. Finally, it is necessary to reconsider how accounting should be taught at high school, providing less emphasis on the scorekeeping role of accountants and increasing the emphasis on how accounting impacts everyday life.

Thesis (Psy. D.)--Indiana University of Pennsylvania. / Includes bibliographical references.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Women in academia tend to take on the caretaker role in their departments by fulfilling most of the less promotable service work like mentoring. The perceived fit between this service and the communal stereotype of women creates expectations that women should take on these roles, which can lead to backlash if women violate these expectations. This study investigates gendered expectations in academia by evaluating whether women faculty experience more backlash for declining a student’s mentorship request than their male counterparts. Participants read a profile of a faculty member (male or female) and an email exchange between that faculty member and a student requesting mentorship. The faculty member either declined or accepted the request and participants rated the faculty member on interpersonal measures. Results indicated that men and women faculty were both rated more negatively by students when they declined the request, suggesting that women can say no to mentoring without the burden of gendered backlash. Given that some predicted effects approached significance, it is important to understand other factors that may impact perceptions, including whether the reason for declining, field of study (i.e., STEM), and the gender of student may impact the extent of backlash. This work furthers our understanding of whether women faculty can say no to service and focus on more promotable tasks without hurting their reputations.

This project is a case study on the vertical and horizontal occupational structures of physical therapy and how gender attitudes on opportunities can influence one’s workplace satisfaction. The theoretical perspective is based upon a gendered organizational theory and organizational justice operating in a latent manner through gendered opportunities on workplace satisfaction. Horizontal segregation (location and specialty) has been linked to gender essentialism, while vertical hierarchy (work continuity, earnings, and supervisory duties) has also been linked to male primacy. Workers’ perceived attitudes about opportunities for women (promotions and jobs) can potentially influence the outcome of job satisfaction. The 2004 Physical Therapy Labor Force Survey was examined for potential bias using a sample of physical therapists (PTs) from the 2000 US Census PUMS 5 percent sample. Using the 2004 survey data for salaried PTs, two dependent variables were generated via factor analysis (intrinsic rewards and well-being) from a 10-item workplace attitudes scale. Regression analyses on these models by gender revealed specific associations among the explanatory variables and the workplace attitude factors. Women who selected the response “promotion opportunities worse for women” on average had lower intrinsic reward and well-being factor scores (compared to those selecting no difference). Yet, men who chose “job opportunities better for women” on average had lower well-being scores (compared to men reporting no difference); this was not shown to be the case for intrinsic rewards for men. In general, the results of this research suggest that female respondents with the perception that women have less chance for promotion than en tended to lower their job satisfaction. However, male respondents who perceived that women have a greater chance of jobs than men tended to have reduced job satisfaction scores. The results for women were in both domains of satisfaction (intrinsic rewards and well-being), whereas those for men were only for well-being. Job satisfaction is affected by the social structure (vertical and horizontal), gender, and attitudes about opportunities in physical therapy associations among the explanatory variables and the workplace attitude factors.

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