Most descriptions of the ostrich oropharynx and oesophagus are superficial and supply little meaningful morphological data. It was therefore the aim of this study to address this deficiency by means of a macroscopic and histological study of this region. The results were supplemented by data obtained by scanning electron microscopy. Macroscopic observations confirmed that in the ostrich the oral and pharyngeal cavities formed a single structure and could not be separated using visual criteria. The most obvious components observed in the roof of the oropharynx were the palate, the choana, the infundibular cleft and the pharyngeal folds, and on the floor, the interramal region, the tongue and the laryngeal mound. The prominent median longitudinal fold running along the palate and the numerous folds in the interrammal region of the floor contained a concentration of Herbst (Pacinian) corpuscles. The ramphotheca forming the rim of the oral cavity carried a sharp tomium along the rostral aspect of the mouth. which would assist the ostrich in tearing off plant material. It was further observed that both the roof and floor of the oropharynx could be macroscopically divided into two regions based on colour differences in the mucosa. The pale rostral regions were lined by a keratinized stratified squamous epithelium whereas the darker, more caudally positioned regions demonstrated a thicker non-keratinised epithelium and, in the case of the roof, a glandular layer. None of the regions of the upper digestive tract sampled revealed structures resembling taste buds and it would appear as if taste plays no role in the selection of food in the ostrich. The presence of large numbers of Herbst corpuscles in the palate may indicate the importance of texture in the selection of food in this species. In addition to confirming the folded nature of the ostrich tongue, this study revealed that the deep pouch formed by the dorsal tongue fold is further subdivided by a smaller secondary fold into dorsal and ventral recesses. The function of this structural adaptation is unclear but the large increase in surface area produced by the folds, and by virtue of the numerous mucous producing glands found in the mucosa, would presumably enhance mucous production and secretion required for ingesting often dry and difficult to swallow plant material. In addition to the tongue, the entire caudal aspect of the oropharynx was well-equipped with glandular tissue. Other adaptations for swallowing food included the presence of a highly folded mucosa in the interramal region which would indicate that the floor of the oral cavity in the ostrich is capable of a certain degree of distension to accommodate the accumulation of food in the oral cavity prior to swallowing. In similar fashion the longitudinal mucosal folds present throughout the oesophagus, as in other avian species, would also allow for distension of this organ when swallowing bulky food items. The pharyngeal folds that lie caudal to and around the opening of the Eustachian tubes in ratites are often referred to as the “tonsils” although no histological information has been presented to support this observation. This study revealed that the pharyngeal folds are filled with masses of diffuse and nodular lymphatic tissue and that epithelial folds emanating from the infundibular cleft and retropharyngeal recess formed tonsillar crypts surrounded by the lymphatic tissue. It has been well documented that in most species of birds papillae are found throughout the oropharynx. Papillae have also been described in ratites, mainly on the tongue and at the caudal aspect of the larynx. Whether the projections observed on the laryngeal mound of the ostrich in this study can be viewed as pharyngeal papillae remains debatable. Likewise, the lingual papillae seen in the ostrich were poorly developed and rudimentary. Compared to other birds, therefore, it is clear that the oropharynx of the ostrich is poorly equipped with papillae. This study confirmed that the hyobranchial apparatus consists of both central and paired caudo-lateral components, the former represented by the paraglossum and fused basihyale and urohyale, and the latter by the ceratobranchiale and the epibranchiale. The most important finding was that the paraglossum of the ostrich consisted of paired caudo-laterally directed cartilages that were connected rostrally to each other by fibrous connective tissue, and which supported the ventro-lateral aspect of the tongue. This information on the paraglossum has not previously been reported. The horns of the hyobranchial apparatus did not pass close to the skull as previously reported but in fact curved downwards away from the skull. The larynx consisted of the cricoid, procricoid and two arytenoid cartilages as is found in birds in general. It can be concluded that the present study, in addition to confirming the basic features of the oropharynx previously described for the ostrich, clarified the contradictory information presented in the literature and also provided new, unreported morphological data, some of which may be important when studying nutrition in these birds. / Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2008. / Anatomy and Physiology / unrestricted

A dissertation submitted to the faculty of science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science Johannesburg, August 2017 / MT 2018

O presente trabalho avaliou os níveis séricos de testosterona total e de corticosterona em avestruzes machos e os correlacionou com o comportamento (grau de agressividade e presença ou não de kantling) e as características sexuais secundárias (tamanho de bolsa fálica, tipo e intensidade da coloração de canela e bico) dentro e fora do período reprodutivo destas aves. Além disso, foi descrito o ciclo circadiano dos hormônios testosterona e corticosterona de dois avestruzes machos em reprodução. A técnica utilizada para a dosagem hormonal foi a radioimunoensaio, sendo validada a técnica para a espécie em questão. Durante o período de observações e coleta das amostras de soro das aves avaliadas ao longo da estação reprodutiva foi observada diferença estatística (p<0,05) para as variáveis coloração e níveis de testosterona sérica para os animais em reprodução quando comparados com os animais fora do período reprodutivo (3,96 + 0,11 vs. 3,06 + 0,36, 173,48 + 12,26 vs. 63,92 + 14,75ng/ml, respectivamente). Verificaram-se correlações entre grau de agressividade e tamanho de bolsa fálica dentro (r=0,18; p=0,04) e fora (r=0,38; p=0,03) da estação reprodutiva, coloração de bico e canela e tamanho de bolsa fálica em reprodução (r=0,67; p<0,0001) e fora da reprodução (r=0,68; p<0,0001), níveis séricos de testosterona total e tamanho de bolsa fálica em reprodução (r=0,43; p<0,0001) e fora da reprodução (r=0,51; p=0,0028), níveis séricos de testosterona total e coloração de canela e bico em reprodução (r=0,53; p<0,0001) e fora da reprodução (r=0,72; p<0,0001). Foi também observada correlação positiva para a variável kantling e grau de agressividade no período reprodutivo (r=0,29; p<0,0008), níveis séricos de testosterona total e de corticosterona no período reprodutivo (r=0,43; p<0,0015) e entre kantling e coloração de canela e bico no período não reprodutivo (r=0,36; p<0,04) para as aves estudadas. Na segunda parte do experimento 30 avestruzes machos foram classificados em três níveis (nível 1 - aves com maior bolsa fálica, maior grau de agressividade e coloração; nível 2 - aves com tamanho de bolsa fálica mediano, grau de agressividade e de coloração mediano; nível 3 - aves com tamanho de bolsa fálica menor, menor grau de agressividade e coloração menos intensa) e a produção total de ovos, ovos férteis, ovos inférteis, ovos contaminados, ovos com morte embrionária e total de filhotes nascidos vivos de cada grupo foi analisado estatisticamente, observando-se que as aves pertencentes ao nível 1 obtiveram os melhores índices para as variáveis de produção total de ovos, ovos férteis e total de filhotes nascidos vivos em relação as aves pertencentes ao nível 3. Os resultados do presente experimento descrevem a existência da relação entre os níveis séricos de testosterona e as características sexuais de avestruzes, tais como tamanho de bolsa fálica e grau de coloração, além de descrever a existência de uma relação entre as características sexuais reprodutivas e comportamentais de avestruzes machos e alguns dos seus índices de produção. / The present study evaluated the levels of total serum testosterone and corticosterone in male ostriches and to correlate those values with the behavioral (degree of aggressiveness and presence or not of kantling) and the secondary sexual characteristics (cloacal size, type and intensity of the color of the peak and cinnamon) during the reproductive and non-reproductive seasons of these birds. Moreover, the circadian cycle of the hormones testosterone and corticosterone of two male ostriches in reproduction was described. The technique used for the hormonal assay was the radioimmunoassay, which was validated for the specie. During the period of observations and serum samples collection, differences (p<0,05) were found on color and serum levels of testosterone when comparing the reproductive and non-reproductive seasons (3.96 ± 0.11 vs. 3.06 ± 0.36 and 173.48 ± 12.26 vs. 63.92 ± 14.75, respectively). Correlations were found between aggressiveness and cloacal size during the reproductive (r=0.18; p=0.04) and non-reproductive (r=0.38; p=0.03) seasons, coloration of peak and cinnamon and cloacal size during the reproductive (r=0.67; p<0.0001) and non-reproductive seasons (r=0.68; p<0.0001), levels of total serum testosterone and cloacal size during the reproductive (r=0.43; p<0.0001) and non-reproductive season (r=0.51; p=0.0028), serum levels of testosterone and coloration of cinnamon and peak during the reproductive (r=0.53; p<0.0001) and non-reproductive (r=0.72; p<0.0001). Also positive correlations were observed between kantling and aggressiveness in the reproductive period (r=0.29; p<0.0008), serum level of testosterone and corticosterone in the reproductive period (r=0.43; p<0.0015) and between kantling and color of cinnamon and peak in the non-reproductive period (r=0.36; p<0.04) for the ostriches of the experiment. In the second part of the experiment 30 male ostriches were classified in three levels (level 1 - birds with bigger cloacal size, bigger degree of aggressiveness and coloration; level 2 - birds with medium cloacal size, medium degree of aggressiveness and coloration; level 3 - birds with smaller cloacal size, smaller degree of aggressiveness and less intense coloration) and the total production of eggs, fertile eggs, infertile eggs, contaminated eggs, eggs with embryonic death and total living chicks. Birds from level 1 showed the best indexes for total egg production, fertile eggs and total living chicks in comparative to the birds of the level 3. The results of the present experiment indicated the existence of a relation between the serum levels of testosterone and the sexual characteristics of ostriches, such as cloacal size and degree of coloration, beyond describing the existence of a relation between the secondary sexual characteristics and behavior of male ostriches and some of its indices of production.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar os níveis séricos dos hormônios esteróides (estradiol e progesterona) e analisar as possíveis relações destes com o desenvolvimento do comportamento reprodutivo em fêmeas jovens de avestruzes (Struthio camelus) durante a maturação sexual. No primeiro experimento, duas fêmeas jovens foram avaliadas, três vezes por semana, através de colheitas de sangue para dosagem de estradiol e progesterona e de observações para avaliação do comportamento reprodutivo. No segundo experimento, 20 fêmeas jovens foram selecionadas de acordo com a intensidade de comportamento reprodutivo e tiveram seu comportamento reprodutivo monitorado semanalmente. Foram realizadas colheitas de sangue semanais nos mesmos dias das observações comportamentais. No primeiro experimento, através da comparação das médias dos valores de estradiol nas fases de presença (CCOMP) ou ausência de comportamento reprodutivo (SCOMP), verificou-se uma igualdade entre as médias nas duas fêmeas estudadas e não foi verificada correlação entre os níveis séricos de estradiol e o comportamento reprodutivo. No segundo experimento, a comparação das médias de estradiol entre as amostras dos animais SCOMP e CCOMP apresentou diferença significativa. A comparação das médias entre as 4 categorias comportamentais estabelecidas - sem comportamento (SCOMP), com baixo comportamento (COMPBX), com alto comportamento sem aceitação de cópula (COMPALTSACC), com alto comportamento com aceitação de cópula (COMPALTCACC) - demonstraram haver diferença significativa entre os valores de estradiol encontrados, também sendo verificada correlação entre as 4 categorias e os níveis médios de estradiol (r = 0,64). Para a progesterona, no primeiro experimento, os valores médios foram significativamente maiores nas amostras SCOMP do que nas CCOMP, sendo que a progesterona apresentou uma correlação negativa com a intensidade do comportamento reprodutivo nas duas fêmeas (r = -0,54 e r = -0,33). No segundo experimento, os valores médios de progesterona foram significativamente maiores nas amostras CCOMP do que nas amostras SCOMP. As médias de progesterona das 4 categorias comportamentais apresentaram diferenças significativas e houve correlação positiva (r = 0,43) dos níveis de progesterona com as 4 categorias comportamentais. Os resultados sugerem que exista uma relação entre os níveis de estradiol e progesterona e a modulação da intensidade de comportamentos reprodutivos, mas não necessariamente entre estes níveis hormonais e a iniciação destes comportamentos e que os perfis séricos de estradiol e progesterona em fêmeas de avestruz na fase de maturação sexual apresentam semelhanças com outras espécies de aves. / The purpose of this work was to study the serum levels of estradiol and progesterone and analyze their relationship with the development of the reproductive behavior in young female ostriches (Struthio camelus) during sexual maturity. The first experiment studied two young females, through blood samples, three times a week, for measurement of estradiol and progesterone and was performed behavioral observations at the same time. In the second experiment, twenty young female ostriches had their reproductive behavior monitored weekly and blood samples were collected for hormone assays in the same days of the observations. The results of the first experiment showed no differences between the mean of estradiol levels in the two phases, with and without reproductive behavior. In the same way there were no correlations between estradiol levels and frequency of behaviors. In the second experiment, there were significant differences between the mean of estradiol levels with and without reproductive behavior. When it was considered four categories of behavior (without behavior, low behavior, high behavior and no copulation posture, and high behavior and copulation posture display), the mean estradiol levels showed significant differences. There was positive correlation between the categories and the estradiol levels (r = 0,64). Regarding progesterone, the first experiment, demonstrated significantly higher hormonal levels in the absence than in the presence of reproductive behavior and a negative correlation between the occurrence of behaviors and the hormonal levels for both females (r = -0,54 and r = -0,33). In the second experiment, the means of progesterone levels were significantly higher in the phase with behavioral displays than with none. For the four behavioral categories, the means of progesterone levels differed significantly and showed a positive correlation (r = 0,43) with the reproductive behavior. The results suggest that there is a relationship between estradiol and progesterone levels and the occurence of the reproductive behavior, but not necessarily between these hormone levels and the initiation of the process. The hormonal levels of estradiol and progesterone found in ostriches were similar to some domestic avian species.

O presente trabalho avaliou os níveis séricos de testosterona total e de corticosterona em avestruzes machos e os correlacionou com o comportamento (grau de agressividade e presença ou não de kantling) e as características sexuais secundárias (tamanho de bolsa fálica, tipo e intensidade da coloração de canela e bico) dentro e fora do período reprodutivo destas aves. Além disso, foi descrito o ciclo circadiano dos hormônios testosterona e corticosterona de dois avestruzes machos em reprodução. A técnica utilizada para a dosagem hormonal foi a radioimunoensaio, sendo validada a técnica para a espécie em questão. Durante o período de observações e coleta das amostras de soro das aves avaliadas ao longo da estação reprodutiva foi observada diferença estatística (p<0,05) para as variáveis coloração e níveis de testosterona sérica para os animais em reprodução quando comparados com os animais fora do período reprodutivo (3,96 + 0,11 vs. 3,06 + 0,36, 173,48 + 12,26 vs. 63,92 + 14,75ng/ml, respectivamente). Verificaram-se correlações entre grau de agressividade e tamanho de bolsa fálica dentro (r=0,18; p=0,04) e fora (r=0,38; p=0,03) da estação reprodutiva, coloração de bico e canela e tamanho de bolsa fálica em reprodução (r=0,67; p<0,0001) e fora da reprodução (r=0,68; p<0,0001), níveis séricos de testosterona total e tamanho de bolsa fálica em reprodução (r=0,43; p<0,0001) e fora da reprodução (r=0,51; p=0,0028), níveis séricos de testosterona total e coloração de canela e bico em reprodução (r=0,53; p<0,0001) e fora da reprodução (r=0,72; p<0,0001). Foi também observada correlação positiva para a variável kantling e grau de agressividade no período reprodutivo (r=0,29; p<0,0008), níveis séricos de testosterona total e de corticosterona no período reprodutivo (r=0,43; p<0,0015) e entre kantling e coloração de canela e bico no período não reprodutivo (r=0,36; p<0,04) para as aves estudadas. Na segunda parte do experimento 30 avestruzes machos foram classificados em três níveis (nível 1 - aves com maior bolsa fálica, maior grau de agressividade e coloração; nível 2 - aves com tamanho de bolsa fálica mediano, grau de agressividade e de coloração mediano; nível 3 - aves com tamanho de bolsa fálica menor, menor grau de agressividade e coloração menos intensa) e a produção total de ovos, ovos férteis, ovos inférteis, ovos contaminados, ovos com morte embrionária e total de filhotes nascidos vivos de cada grupo foi analisado estatisticamente, observando-se que as aves pertencentes ao nível 1 obtiveram os melhores índices para as variáveis de produção total de ovos, ovos férteis e total de filhotes nascidos vivos em relação as aves pertencentes ao nível 3. Os resultados do presente experimento descrevem a existência da relação entre os níveis séricos de testosterona e as características sexuais de avestruzes, tais como tamanho de bolsa fálica e grau de coloração, além de descrever a existência de uma relação entre as características sexuais reprodutivas e comportamentais de avestruzes machos e alguns dos seus índices de produção. / The present study evaluated the levels of total serum testosterone and corticosterone in male ostriches and to correlate those values with the behavioral (degree of aggressiveness and presence or not of kantling) and the secondary sexual characteristics (cloacal size, type and intensity of the color of the peak and cinnamon) during the reproductive and non-reproductive seasons of these birds. Moreover, the circadian cycle of the hormones testosterone and corticosterone of two male ostriches in reproduction was described. The technique used for the hormonal assay was the radioimmunoassay, which was validated for the specie. During the period of observations and serum samples collection, differences (p<0,05) were found on color and serum levels of testosterone when comparing the reproductive and non-reproductive seasons (3.96 ± 0.11 vs. 3.06 ± 0.36 and 173.48 ± 12.26 vs. 63.92 ± 14.75, respectively). Correlations were found between aggressiveness and cloacal size during the reproductive (r=0.18; p=0.04) and non-reproductive (r=0.38; p=0.03) seasons, coloration of peak and cinnamon and cloacal size during the reproductive (r=0.67; p<0.0001) and non-reproductive seasons (r=0.68; p<0.0001), levels of total serum testosterone and cloacal size during the reproductive (r=0.43; p<0.0001) and non-reproductive season (r=0.51; p=0.0028), serum levels of testosterone and coloration of cinnamon and peak during the reproductive (r=0.53; p<0.0001) and non-reproductive (r=0.72; p<0.0001). Also positive correlations were observed between kantling and aggressiveness in the reproductive period (r=0.29; p<0.0008), serum level of testosterone and corticosterone in the reproductive period (r=0.43; p<0.0015) and between kantling and color of cinnamon and peak in the non-reproductive period (r=0.36; p<0.04) for the ostriches of the experiment. In the second part of the experiment 30 male ostriches were classified in three levels (level 1 - birds with bigger cloacal size, bigger degree of aggressiveness and coloration; level 2 - birds with medium cloacal size, medium degree of aggressiveness and coloration; level 3 - birds with smaller cloacal size, smaller degree of aggressiveness and less intense coloration) and the total production of eggs, fertile eggs, infertile eggs, contaminated eggs, eggs with embryonic death and total living chicks. Birds from level 1 showed the best indexes for total egg production, fertile eggs and total living chicks in comparative to the birds of the level 3. The results of the present experiment indicated the existence of a relation between the serum levels of testosterone and the sexual characteristics of ostriches, such as cloacal size and degree of coloration, beyond describing the existence of a relation between the secondary sexual characteristics and behavior of male ostriches and some of its indices of production.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:15:32Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2009 - Carla Alves Soleiro.pdf: 3960368 bytes, checksum: 0dd24a3adc28cf6201d540a47b33d074 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-02-11 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Ostriches are susceptible to many diseases and until recently, many of them are unknown and can affect these animals when it comes to commercially breeding. In Brazil, the commercial establishment has been initiated 20 years ago, but already there are reports about the diseases that can affect these birds. The objectives of this study were identify morphologically gastrointestinal protozoans and nematodes of ostriches and see the variations: the parasitic infection that occurs in accordance to the dry and rainy seasons, and the elimination of eggs of nematodes and oocysts / cysts of protozoa by age, in a commercial establishment located in Itabora? City, Microregion of Rio de Janeiro, State of Rio de Janeiro. During the period from June 2004 to May 2006 ostriches were separated into three age groups: up to 90 days, 91 to 365 days and over 365 days (adults). The collection was held monthly and fecal samples were individually obtained, placed in plastic bags, identified and kept under refrigeration until the moment to be examined. There were employed the techniques of centrifuge-flotation in saturated sucrose solution, centrifuge-sedimentation in formalin-ether, culture of feces and stained by Safranin-Metilen Blue, and Gomori trichrome of iron Hematoxylin. Meteorological data were also obtained to determine the dry and rainy seasons. There were identified the nematode Codiostomum struthionis and three genera of intestinal protozoa: Blastocystis, Entamoeba and Cryptosporidium. All birds younger than 365 days showed a higher frequency of the genus Cryptosporidium. Among the mixed infections the most common was the association of C. struthionis with Cryptosporidium. (17.74%) in adults. There was a greater shedding of Strongylida eggs (p <0.05) and also larger number of animals that shed oocysts / cysts of intestinal protozoans in feces during the rainy season (p <0.05). A larger number of animals less than 365 days eliminated cysts / oocysts of protozoa, which is significantly correlated to the genus Entamoeba in animals up to 90 days compared with 91 to 365 (p=0.036) and to the genus Blastocystis, in this case when compared with the over 365 days (p=0.09). / Avestruzes s?o suscet?veis a diversas enfermidades e at? h? pouco tempo se desconheciam aquelas que podem acometer esses animais quando criados comercialmente. No Brasil a cria??o comercial iniciou-se h? cerca de 20 anos, mas j? existem relatos sobre as doen?as que podem acometer essas aves. Os objetivos do presente trabalho foram identificar morfologicamente protozo?rios e nemat?ides gastrintestinais de avestruzes e verificar as varia??es: da infec??o parasit?ria de acordo com as ?pocas seca e chuvosa, e da elimina??o de ovos de nemat?ides e de oocisto/cisto de protozo?rios por faixa et?ria, em uma cria??o comercial localizado no Munic?pio de Itabora?, Microrregi?o do Rio de Janeiro, Estado do Rio de Janeiro. Durante o per?odo de junho de 2004 a maio de 2006 foram coletadas fezes de avestruzes de tr?s faixas et?rias: at? 90 dias, de 91 a 365 dias e acima de 365 dias (adultos). A coleta foi realizada mensalmente e as amostras fecais eram obtidas individualmente, colocadas em sacos pl?sticos, identificadas e mantidas sob refrigera??o at? o memento de serem examinadas. Foram empregadas as t?cnicas de centrifugo-flutua??o em solu??o saturada de a??car, centrifugo-sedimenta??o em formol-?ter, coprocultura e colora??es por safranina-azul de metileno, tricr?mio de gomori e hematoxilina f?rrica. Tamb?m foram obtidos dados meteorol?gicos para determinar as ?pocas seca e chuvosa. Foram identificados o nemat?ide Codiostomum struthionis e tr?s g?neros de protozo?rios intestinais: Blastocystis, Cryptosporidium e Entamoeba. Todas as aves com menos de 365 dias apresentaram maior freq??ncia do g?nero Cryptosporidium. Dentre as infec??es mistas a mais comum foi a associa??o de C. struthionis com Cryptosporidium sp. (17,74%) nos adultos. Houve maior elimina??o de ovos da ordem Strongylida (p<0,05) e tamb?m um maior n?mero de animais que eliminaram oocistos/cistos de protozo?rios intestinais nas fezes durante a ?poca chuvosa (p<0,05). Um maior n?mero de animais com menos de 365 dias eliminaram cistos/oocistos de protozo?rios, sendo essa correla??o significativa para o g?nero Entamoeba nos animais com at? 90 dias quando comparados com os de 91 a 365 e para o g?nero Blastocystis, nesse caso quando comparados com os acima de 365 dias.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi estudar os níveis séricos dos hormônios esteróides (estradiol e progesterona) e analisar as possíveis relações destes com o desenvolvimento do comportamento reprodutivo em fêmeas jovens de avestruzes (Struthio camelus) durante a maturação sexual. No primeiro experimento, duas fêmeas jovens foram avaliadas, três vezes por semana, através de colheitas de sangue para dosagem de estradiol e progesterona e de observações para avaliação do comportamento reprodutivo. No segundo experimento, 20 fêmeas jovens foram selecionadas de acordo com a intensidade de comportamento reprodutivo e tiveram seu comportamento reprodutivo monitorado semanalmente. Foram realizadas colheitas de sangue semanais nos mesmos dias das observações comportamentais. No primeiro experimento, através da comparação das médias dos valores de estradiol nas fases de presença (CCOMP) ou ausência de comportamento reprodutivo (SCOMP), verificou-se uma igualdade entre as médias nas duas fêmeas estudadas e não foi verificada correlação entre os níveis séricos de estradiol e o comportamento reprodutivo. No segundo experimento, a comparação das médias de estradiol entre as amostras dos animais SCOMP e CCOMP apresentou diferença significativa. A comparação das médias entre as 4 categorias comportamentais estabelecidas - sem comportamento (SCOMP), com baixo comportamento (COMPBX), com alto comportamento sem aceitação de cópula (COMPALTSACC), com alto comportamento com aceitação de cópula (COMPALTCACC) - demonstraram haver diferença significativa entre os valores de estradiol encontrados, também sendo verificada correlação entre as 4 categorias e os níveis médios de estradiol (r = 0,64). Para a progesterona, no primeiro experimento, os valores médios foram significativamente maiores nas amostras SCOMP do que nas CCOMP, sendo que a progesterona apresentou uma correlação negativa com a intensidade do comportamento reprodutivo nas duas fêmeas (r = -0,54 e r = -0,33). No segundo experimento, os valores médios de progesterona foram significativamente maiores nas amostras CCOMP do que nas amostras SCOMP. As médias de progesterona das 4 categorias comportamentais apresentaram diferenças significativas e houve correlação positiva (r = 0,43) dos níveis de progesterona com as 4 categorias comportamentais. Os resultados sugerem que exista uma relação entre os níveis de estradiol e progesterona e a modulação da intensidade de comportamentos reprodutivos, mas não necessariamente entre estes níveis hormonais e a iniciação destes comportamentos e que os perfis séricos de estradiol e progesterona em fêmeas de avestruz na fase de maturação sexual apresentam semelhanças com outras espécies de aves. / The purpose of this work was to study the serum levels of estradiol and progesterone and analyze their relationship with the development of the reproductive behavior in young female ostriches (Struthio camelus) during sexual maturity. The first experiment studied two young females, through blood samples, three times a week, for measurement of estradiol and progesterone and was performed behavioral observations at the same time. In the second experiment, twenty young female ostriches had their reproductive behavior monitored weekly and blood samples were collected for hormone assays in the same days of the observations. The results of the first experiment showed no differences between the mean of estradiol levels in the two phases, with and without reproductive behavior. In the same way there were no correlations between estradiol levels and frequency of behaviors. In the second experiment, there were significant differences between the mean of estradiol levels with and without reproductive behavior. When it was considered four categories of behavior (without behavior, low behavior, high behavior and no copulation posture, and high behavior and copulation posture display), the mean estradiol levels showed significant differences. There was positive correlation between the categories and the estradiol levels (r = 0,64). Regarding progesterone, the first experiment, demonstrated significantly higher hormonal levels in the absence than in the presence of reproductive behavior and a negative correlation between the occurrence of behaviors and the hormonal levels for both females (r = -0,54 and r = -0,33). In the second experiment, the means of progesterone levels were significantly higher in the phase with behavioral displays than with none. For the four behavioral categories, the means of progesterone levels differed significantly and showed a positive correlation (r = 0,43) with the reproductive behavior. The results suggest that there is a relationship between estradiol and progesterone levels and the occurence of the reproductive behavior, but not necessarily between these hormone levels and the initiation of the process. The hormonal levels of estradiol and progesterone found in ostriches were similar to some domestic avian species.

Thesis (MScAgric (Animal Sciences))--University of Stellenbosch, 2011. / Includes bibliography. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The ostrich industry has overcome many challenges since it originated. However, it is still vulnerable to sudden changes in customer preferences and economic cycles. As feed costs are the greatest expense in ostrich production, optimising feed formulations is vital. This will be possible if the growth and development of the ostrich can be simulated by modelling software. Various studies were conducted to describe ostrich growth in the form of equations that can be used in modelling software to increase the accuracy of predictions. In the first study, birds were given the choice of four diets with varying energy (8.5 or 13.5 MJ ME/kg feed) and protein (180 or 120 g/kg feed) levels. The birds preferred the high density diet (high energy and protein) in each growth phase. A growth curve of assumed optimal growth was constructed. The chemical fractions of the body were shown to increase non-linearly with advancing age and equations were established to predict the change of the body composition over time. In the second trial, birds received a formulated growth diet and were fed according to their nutrient requirements. Growth data was collected on the separate body components of maturing birds. Feather and skin nodule growth was defined for birds hatched in the summer. Allometric equations were set up to determine, predict and model the ostrich skin size and skin weight, some bones, some organs and the commercially valuable muscles through the growth cycle. The final trial was conducted to determine the effect of diet density (energy and amino acid level) on the growth of ostrich body components. A four-stage, 3 x 5 (energy x protein) factorial design was developed with varying energy and protein feeding regimes. Protein (amino acid) level had no influence on body component growth. Energy level had no effect on feather growth, skin nodule growth, bone and organ growth and muscle growth. Increased levels of dietary energy increased the skin size and skin weight. Increasing the dietary energy level also had a significant effect on the total body fat of the birds. Allometric equations were set up for each variable to predict the effect of diet on ostrich growth. Results in this study provide a framework for simulation modelling. Predicting ostrich growth and development is paramount to accurate diet formulations and lower feeding costs. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die volstruisindustrie het reeds vele struikelblokke oorkom, maar bly steeds kwesbaar vir skielike veranderinge in die ekonomiese klimaat asook in die voorkeure van die verbruiker. Een van die belangrikste insetkostes in volstruisproduksie is voer en daarom is dit noodsaaklik om voerformulerings te optimiseer. Die doel van hierdie tesis was om by te dra tot die ontwikkeling van modellering sagteware wat die groei en ontwikkeling van die volstruis naboots. Die spesifieke doel was om volstruisgroei te bestudeer en te bespreek deur middel van vergelykings wat gebruik kan word om die akkuraatheid van die simulasiemodelle te verhoog. Tydens die eerste studie is die voëls die keuse van vier diëte gegee waarvan die energie- (8.5 of 13.5 MJ ME/kg voer) en proteïen- (180 of 120 g/kg voer) vlakke verskil het. Die voëls het in die hoëdigtheid voer (hoog in energie en proteïen) in elke groeifase gekies. Uit hierdie data, wat aanvaar is om optimale groei te verteenwoordig, is ‘n groeikurwe gekonstrueer wat getoon het dat die chemise komponente van die liggaam nie-linieêr toegeneem het oor tyd. Vergelykings is hieruit afgelei wat die verandering in die liggaamsamestelling oor tyd kan voorspel. In die tweede studie het die voëls ʼn vier-fase geformuleerde groeidieët ontvang en is na gelang van hulle voedings behoeftes gevoer. Groeidata is ingesamel van die individuele liggaams-komponente van die groeiende volstruise. Veer- en velgroei is gedefinieer vir die voëls wat in die somer uitgebroei het. Allometriese vergelykings is opgestel om te bepaal hoe die volstruis se velgrootte, velgewig, sekere bene en organe, asook die kommersiële belangrike spiere gedurende die groei-siklus verander. Die finale studie is uitgevoer om die effek van voedingsvlak (energie- en aminosuurvlak) op die groei van die volstruis se liggaamskomponente te bepaal. ʼn Vier-fase, 3 x 5 (energie x proteïen) faktoriale ontwerp is gebruik met veranderende energie- en proteïenvlakke. Proteïen- (aminosuur) vlakke het geen invloed op die groei van die liggaamskomponente gehad nie. Energievlak het geen effek op die veer-, vel-, velknoppie-, been-, organe- en spiergroei gehad nie. Toenemende vlakke van energie het wel gelei tot ʼn toename in die velgrootte en massa. Die toename in voedingsengergie-vlakke het ook ʼn betekenisvolle effek op die totale liggaamsvet van die voëls gehad. Allometriese vergelykings is opgestel vir elk van die veranderlikes om die effek van dieët op elke komponent van die volstruis te bepaal. Die resultate van hierdie studies verskaf ‘n raamwerk vir die simulering en modellering van die groei en ontwikkeling van die volstruis. Akkurate voorspellings van die groei en ontwikkeling van die volstruis is noodsaaklik vir akkurate dieëtformulering en verlaagde voedingskostes.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: When modern man assumed the responsibility of domesticating animals for his own purposes, he directly accepted the responsibility associated with feeding and caring for them. Considering intensive production systems, nutrition is one of the most important aspects in maintaining healthy livestock as well as ensuring profitability is achieved. This is due to the fact that the feeding of the livestock is often the most expensive overhead cost encountered. In ostrich production systems, nutrition costs total an estimated 70 – 80% of the costs associated with rearing the birds from chick to slaughter. When dissecting the typical composition of these ostrich diets, it becomes evident energy and protein are two of the most important, and abundant, nutrients found. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the effects of different concentrations of protein and energy in the diets of slaughter ostriches, on their production parameters. In the first study (Chapter 3), five diets with different protein concentrations were formulated across the four feeding phases of slaughter ostriches (pre-starter, starter, grower and finisher). Three replications per treatment were conducted resulting in 15 camps of ostriches. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found in the live weights of the birds at the end of each feeding phase except the finisher phase. In terms of the production parameters, differences (P < 0.05) were found for the dry matter intake (DMI), average daily gain (ADG) and the feed conversion ratio (FCR). Results indicated that the birds on the middle diet (control) and on the diets containing proportionally higher protein concentrations, although not different from each other, consistently outperformed those on diets containing lower concentrations of protein. These trends were also evident when comparing the cold carcass and thigh weights of the treatment birds post-slaughter. Therefore, from a financial standpoint, it could be concluded that increasing the protein content of the diets beyond that level currently used in industry (control) is not sensible. The second study (Chapter 4) was an evaluation on the primary products harvested from the birds utilized in the first study, namely the feathers, skin and meat. The aim of the investigation was to determine if the dietary protein concentrations had any effect on these products. No differences (P > 0.05) were observed across the feather yields or classes measured, except for the ‘tail feathers’, where the birds fed the lowest protein levels in their diets yielded the fewest. Differences (P < 0.05) were however found in selected skin parameters measured. Decreased dietary protein resulted in smaller wet skin size, smaller sizes of the feather nodules, as well as smaller crust size after the tanning process was completed. However, this had no impact (P > 0.05) on the skin grades achieved. Hence it became clear that dietary protein has an impact on the skin size achieved, which did not translate into differences in skin quality. Similarly, it did not affect the feather yields or quality. Energy is the most important nutrient in livestock diets as it is the first limiting nutrient influencing intake. Therefore, in the third study (Chapter 5), treatments in the form of five different levels of energy in the diets of ostriches, were investigated. Structurally, the layout was similar to the first study with three replications per treatment yielding 15 camps of ostriches. Significant differences (P < 0.05) were found between the live weights of the birds after the pre-starter phase, but not overall after the completion of the trial. The middle diet (diet 3) containing 14.5 MJ ME/kg displayed the highest gains per day of 216.0 ± 8.08 g per chick. The results of the growth were mirrored in the production parameters (DMI, ADG, FCR), where no differences (P > 0.05) were found for the rest of the feeding phases. In a follow up investigation of the effects of dietary, this chapter focused on the impact these different energy levels (Chapter 5) had on the primary products harvested after slaughter (Chapter 6). In particular, the feather yield and quality, skin yield and selected quality parameters, as well as the chemical composition of the meat was studied. No differences were found (P > 0.05) across any of the feather yields or classes measured. Concerning the skin yields and quality, similar results were found with no differences (P > 0.05) between the crust sizes or grades. With regards to the proximate composition of the meat, no major effect (P > 0.05) was found as a result of the treatment diets. Therefore, dietary energy content exhibited little influence over the feather, skin and meat parameters measured in this study. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die oomblik toe die nuwerwetse mens die verantwoordelikheid aanvaar het vir die mak maak van diere vir sy eie gebruik, het hy direk die verantwoordelikheid aanvaar wat geassosieer word met hul voeding en versorging. Met inagneming van intensiewe produksiestelsels is voeding een van die belangrikste aspekte in die handhawing van gesonde vee asook om winsgewendheid te verseker. Dit is as gevolg van die feit dat die voeding van diere dikwels die grootste oorhoofse uitgawe is. In volstruisproduksiestelsels bereik die voedingskostes ‘n totale geskatte hoeveelheid van 70 – 80% van die kostes wat geassosieer word met die grootmaak van die voëls vanaf kuiken tot slagvoël. Wanneer die tipiese samestelling van hierdie volstruisdiëte ontleed word, is dit duidelik dat energie en proteïene twee van die mees belangrike en volopste voedingstowwe is wat gevind word. Hierdie studie was dus onderneem om die effek van verskillende konsentrasies proteïene en energie in die diëte van slagvoëls en hulle produksieparameters te ondersoek. Vir die eerste studie (Hoofstuk 3) is vyf diëte met verskillende proteïenkonsentrasies geformuleer vir die vier voedingsfases van slagvolstruise (voor-aanvangs, aanvangs, groei en afronding). Drie herhalings per behandeling is gebruik wat 15 volstruiskampe tot gevolg gehad het. Betekenisvolle verskille (P < 0.05) in die lewende gewig van die voëls is aan die einde van elke voedingsfase gevind, behalwe vir die afrondingsfase. In terme van die produksieparameters is verskille (P < 0.05) gevind vir die droë materiaalinname (DMI), gemiddelde daaglikse toename (GDT) en die voeromsetverhouding (VOV). Resultate het getoon dat voëls wat die middelste dieet (kontrole) en diëte wat proporsioneel hoër proteïenkonsentrasies bevat het, alhoewel hulle nie van mekaar verskil nie, konsekwent beter presteer het as die wat diëte met laer proteïenkonsentrasies ontvang het. Hierdie tendense is ook waargeneem toe die koue karkas- en dygewigte van die eksperimentele voëls na-doods vergelyk is. Vanuit ‘n finansiële oogpunt kan daar dus tot die gevolgtrekking gekom word dat dit nie sinvol sal wees om die proteïeninhoud van volstruisdiëte te verhoog bo die vlak wat tans in die industrie (kontrole) gebruik word nie. Tydens die tweede studie (Hoofstuk 4) is die primêre produkte (vere, velle en vleis) wat vanaf die volstruise in die eerste studie geoes is, geëvalueer. Die doel van hierdie studie was om te bepaal of die verskillende proteïenkonsentrasies in die dieet enige effek op hierdie produkte het. Geen verskille (P > 0.05) is by die veeropbrengste of die verskillende veertipes wat gemeet is, waargeneem nie, behalwe vir die stertvere, waar die voëls wat die laagste proteïenvlakke in hulle diëte ontvang het, die laagste opbrengs gelewer het. Verskille (P < 0.05) is egter gevind in die geselekteerde velparameters wat gemeet is. ‘n Vermindering in die proteïenkonsentrasie het ‘n kleiner nat velgrootte tot gevolg gehad, asook ‘n afname in knoppiegrootte nadat die looiproses voltooi is. Hierdie waarneming het egter geen invloed (P > 0.05) op die gradering van die velle gehad nie. Dit het dus duidelik na vore gekom dat die dieetproteïen wel die velgrootte wat bereik is, beïnvloed het, maar nie tot verskille in velkwaliteit gelei het nie. Veeropbrengs en –kwaliteit is ook nie deur die dieetproteïen beïnvloed nie. Energie is die eerste beperkende voedingskomponent wat voerinname bepaal. Gegewe die groot invloed wat dit op voerinname het, is dit dus die mees belangrike komponent in die dieet van vee. Vandaar dan die derde studie (Hoofstuk 5) waar die behandelings in die vorm van vyf verskillende energievlakke in die diëte van volstruise ondersoek is. Die struktuur en uitleg van die studie was soortgelyk aan die eerste studie met drie herhalings per behandeling wat 15 volstruiskampe tot gevolg gehad het. Betekenisvolle verskille (P < 0.05) is gevind tussen die lewende gewigte van die voëls na die voor-aanvangsfase, maar nie nadat die hele proefneming voltooi is nie. Die middelste dieet (dieet 3) wat 14.5 MJ ME/kg bevat het, het die hoogste toename per dag van 216.0 ± 8.08 g per kuiken opgelewer. Groeiresultate is weerspieël in die produksieparameters (DMI, GDT, VOV), waar geen verskille (P > 0.05) in die res van die voedingsfases gevind is nie. Tydens ‘n opvolgondersoek rakende die effek van dieet, het hierdie hoofstuk gefokus op die impak wat die verskillende energievlakke (Hoofstuk 5) op die primêre produkte wat na-doods geoes is. Daar is in besonder na die vere-opbrengs en –kwaliteit, velgrootte en geselekteerde kwaliteitparameters, asook die chemiese samestelling van die vleis gekyk. Geen verskille (P > 0.05) is by die veeropbrengste of die verskillende veertipes wat gemeet is, gevind nie. Met betrekking tot die velgroottes en -kwaliteit, is soortgelyke resultate gevind met geen verskille (P > 0.05) tussen die knoppiegrootte en –gradering nie. Met verwysing na die proksimale samestelling van die vleis is geen betekenisvolle effek (P > 0.05) as gevolg van die eksperimentele diëte waargeneem nie. Die inhoud van die dieetenergie het dus ‘n klein invloed op die vere-, vel- en vleisparameters wat in hierdie studie geëvalueer is, gehad.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:33:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2009-08-06Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:24:58Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 silva_vms_dr_jabo.pdf: 1563126 bytes, checksum: a8597458785ed3fc77495b0253e82143 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Um dos maiores entraves na criação de avestruzes é relacionado à contaminação da região umbilical de avestruzes recém-eclodidos. Neste trabalho, objetivou-se avaliar a cicatrização umbilical de avestruzes (Struthio camelus) mediante a antissepsia com clorexidina associada à secção total ou parcial do cordão umbilical. Também foi avaliado o desempenho ponderal e investigado a causa de morte, associando-os com a onfalite. Foram utilizados 227 filhotes, cujo cordão umbilical foi seccionado totalmente ou 0,5 cm acima da sua inserção. A antissepsia da região umbilical consistiu na aplicação de clorexidina, em solução aquosa ou alcoólica, nas concentrações de 0,5%, 1,0% e 2,0%, durante três dias. Também foi incluído um grupo sem tratamento. A cicatrização umbilical e o desenvolvimento ponderal foram avaliados aos 14 e 28 dias de idade do filhote. As aves que vieram a óbito foram necropsiadas e fragmentos de umbigo foram submetidos ao exame histopatológico. Os resultados mostraram que as soluções de clorexidina reduziram o risco de onfalite, sendo a solução alcoólica 2% a mais eficiente. A cicatrização foi mais rápida nas aves em que o cordão umbilical foi seccionado totalmente. Pela análise microscópica dos cortes histológicos de umbigo não se evidenciou diferenças morfológicas entre o grupo sem tratamento e o grupo da clorexidina alcoólica 2%. Em geral, os filhotes apresentaram baixo desenvolvimento decorrente de manejo inadequado. Nenhuma morte foi associada a onfalite. Conclui-se que, o uso de clorexidina para a antissepsia da região umbilical de avestruzes recém-eclodidos, é seguro e favorece a cicatrização umbilical, sendo necessário para uma maior efetividade remover o cordão umbilical na altura da sua inserção. / The contamination of the umbilical region of newly hatched ostrich is one of the major problems in the bird production. This work aimed to evaluate the umbilical healing of ostriches (Struthio camelus) through the use of chlorhexidine as antiseptic associated to the total or partial umbilical cord cut off. It was evaluated both the weight performance and “causa mortis” associated with omphalitis occurrence as well. It was used 227 newly hatched ostriches of which the umbilical cords were either sectioned totally or 0.5 cm above their insertion. The umbilical region antisepsis consisted of topical administration of an aqueous or alcoholic solution of chlorhexidine, 0.5, 1.0 or 2.0% during three days. A group of non-treated animals was added also. The umbilical healing and weight performance were evaluated in the ostriches at 14 and 28 days of age. Those animals which came to death were necropsied and umbilical fragments were submitted to histopathological exam. Results showed that all the chlorhexidine solutions reduced the risk of omphalitis, being the alcoholic solution 2% the most efficient. Umbilical healing was faster in animals in which the umbilical cord was totally cut off. The histopathological exam revealed no morphological differences between the non-treated group and the alcoholic chlorhexidine 2% group. In general, the newly hatched ostriches presented low weight performance due to inadequate handling. Animal deaths were not associated to omphalitis. It can be concluded that the use of chlorhexidine as antiseptic for newly hatched ostriches is safe and favors the umbilical healing. Moreover, for a better effectiveness it is necessary to remove the umbilical cord in its insertion.