Phosphotriesterase (PTE) from Pseudomonas diminuta is a zinc metalloenzyme found in soil bacteria capable of organophosphate hydrolysis at rates approaching the diffusion controlled limit. Interest in PTE for degradation of chemical warfare agents and disposal of pesticides supports the need to understand the mechanism by which it performs hydrolysis. For further mechanistic clarity, this work will provide direct confirmation of the solvent bridge identity and the protonated species resulting in loss of catalytic identity. Inhibitor and product binding to the metal center will also be addressed; as well as the evaluation of the catalytic activity of Fe(II)-substituted PTE. This work has determined that the Mn/Mn-PTE electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrum exhibits exchange coupling that is facilitated through a hydroxide bridge. Protonation of the bridging hydroxide results in the loss of the exchange coupling between the two divalent cations and the loss of catalytic activity. The reversible protonation of the bridging hydroxide has an apparent pKa of 7.3 based upon changes in the EPR spectrum of Mn/Mn-PTE with alterations in pH. The pH-rate profile for the hydrolysis of paraoxon by Mn/Mn-PTE shows the requirement of a single function group that must be unprotonated with a pKa of 7.1. The comparable pKa values are proposed to result from the protonation of the same ionizable species. The effects of inhibitor and product binding on the magnetic properties of the metal center and the hydroxyl bridge are investigated by accessing new EPR spectral features. This work concludes that the binding of inhibitor occurs at the metal center and results in an increase of non-bridged hydroxyl species. These results, in conjunction with kinetic and crystallographic data, suggest that substrate binding via the phosphoryl oxygen at the ?-metal weakens the hydroxyl bridge coordination to the ?-metal. This loss of coordination would increase the nucleophilic character of the bridge, and binding of the substrate to the metal center would result in a stronger nucleophile for hydrolysis. Lastly, Fe(II) binding and activation of apoenzyme is evaluated under anaerobic conditions. This work concludes Fe/Fe-PTE is not catalytically active, but can bind up to 2 equivalent Fe(II) ions per active site.

P[Kappa]a is not responsible for the improved activity. Hence, stabilization of an enediolate intermediate may be important for catalysis. In the second part of this work, the Chloroflexus aurantiacus J-10-fl heterohexameric 4-OT tautomerase was employed in random and rational directed evolution studies to introduce a CaaD activity. Genetic selection and a high throughput screening assay were used to identify mutants. Genetic selection was unsuccessful due to plasmid instability in the host strain. A small mutant library in the screening assay precluded the identification of any mutants with CaaD activity. Finally, rational design using structure-function relationships was investigated and a single mutant was discovered for hh4-OT that incorporated CaaD activity into the enzyme, the [alpha]L9R hh4-OT, this mutant has been characterized kinetically and the evolutionary implications for the tautomerase superfamily are described. / text

No description available.

Previously, gp16, the ATPase protein of phi29 DNA packaging motor, was an enigma due to its tendency to form multiple oligomeric states. Recently we employed new methodologies to decipher both its stoichiometry and also the mechanism in which the protein functions to hydrolyze ATP and provide the driving force for DNA packaging. The oligomeric states were determined by biochemical and biophysical approaches. Contrary to many reported intriguing models of viral DNA packaging, it was found that phi29 DNA packaging motor permits the translocation of DNA unidirectionally and driven cooperatively by three rings of defined shape. The mechanism for the generation of force and the role of adenosine and phosphate in motor motion were demonstrated. It was concluded that phi29 genomic DNA is pushed to traverse the motor channel section by section with the aid of ATPase gp16, similar to the hexameric AAA+ family in the translocation of dsDNA. A new model of "Push through a One-way Valve" for the mechanism of viral DNA packaging motor was coined to describe the coordinated interaction among the hexameric packaging ATPase gp16 and the revolution mechanism of the dodecameric channel which serves as a control device to regulate the directional movement of dsDNA.

The mammalian immune system has developed diverse strategies to protect the gastrointestinal tract, as this tissue locale represents a huge absorptive surface and is susceptible to microbial breach. Paradoxically, one key aspect of this protective strategy is the maintenance of selected commensal microorganisms. These commensals serve essential roles in digestion, interfere with pathogenic microbial invasion and stimulate development of the host immune system. Therefore, immune responses which deplete these commensal populations are detrimental to the host. One effective intestinal immune response which selectively promotes the survival of commensals is production of antibodies of the IgA isotype which bind to bacteria without triggering inflammatory cytokines. Proteins of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family such as Lymphotoxin and BAFF contribute to the induction of IgA responses. Lymphotoxin is required for generation and organization of most organized lymphoid tissues, where B cell differentiation occurs, while BAFF is necessary for B cell survival and induces B cells to produce IgA. In this thesis, I describe work I have done in examining the roles of the TNF family members Lymphotoxin, BAFF and two related TNF family member cytokines, LIGHT and APRIL, in the regulation of IgA production in mice and in humans. Specifically, LIGHT over-expression drives immense production of IgA, leading to renal deposition of immune complexes in mice. Similar to LIGHT, BAFF over-expression drives increases in IgA production in the intestine, however I have shown that the effects of the BAFF pathway on IgA hyper-production are independent of LIGHT activity. Secondly, examining the phenotype of BAFF-over-expressing mice, I have shown that this phenotype resembles human IgA nephropathy (IgAN) and is dependent on intestinal commensals. Finally, I have described a lymphotoxin-dependent chemokine system in the intestinal lamina propria that could be responsible for organizing cells for the development of IgA responses in this mucosal site.

Os elementos de transposicão (TEs) são sequências genéticas móveis. Sua capacidade mutagênica faz deles uma importante fonte de variabilidade nos genomas. Outro importante papel dos TEs na evolução dos genomas é o de doadores de domínios protéicos na formação de novos genes. 276 clones de cDNA homólogos a TEs foram previamente identificados no banco de dados do SUCEST (projeto de sequenciamento de etiquetas expressas de cana-de-acúcar). Neste trabalho nós realizamos o sequenciamento completo de 156 destes clones e a classificação e caracterização de suas sequências comparando-as com bancos de dados. Foram identificadas 9 diferentes famílias de transposons e 11 diferentes famílias de retrotransposons. As famílias mais representadas entre os transposons foram MuDr e hAT (que engloba os elementos do tipo Ac e Tam3), para os quais foram identificados 43 e 32 clones de cDNA, respectivamente. Entre os retrotransposons, a família mais representada foi Hopscotch, apresentando 25 clones de cDNA. Após esta análise global, o foco das investigações voltou-se para os cDNAs do tipo hAT. Uma análise comparativa destes cDNAs revelou que as sequências homólogas a hAT estão distribuídas em dois grupos. O grupo I, é composto por sequências com alta conservação no nível de nucleotídeos, está presente no genoma de todas as gramíneas analisadas (híbridos e parentais da cana-de-acúcar, milho e arroz) com um baixo número de cópias, teve a sua expressão detectada em folhas, raízes e mais intensamente em calos cana. Além disso, apresenta alta similaridade de sequências com transposases domesticadas descritas na literatura. O grupo II, por sua vez, é composto por sequências mais heterogêneas, que apresentam similaridade com os transposons originais que constituem a superfamília hAT: hobo (de Drosophila melanogaster), Ac (de Zea mays) e Tam3 (de Antirrhinum majus). Sua distribuição é restrita ao genoma de Saccharum, com um número de cópias maior que o grupo I. Um ensaio de PCR-Inversa identificou terminações inversas repetidas (TIRs) para o cDNA TE221 do grupo II. A partir de iniciadores desenhados sobre estas TIRs foi possível recuperar dois elementos, de 3,5kb e 4,2kb, respectivamente, e um MITE de 250 pb, todos homólogos a hAT. Este resultado demonstrou que a estratégia utilizada para recuperar elementos do genoma da cana-de-açúcar a partir do cDNA TE221 mostrou-se eficiente. Homólogos aos grupos I e II de cana-de-acúcar foram identificados em bancos de dados de milho, arroz e arabidopsis. Estes dados sugerem que a separação dos dois grupos ocorreu antes da divergência entre as classes Monocotiledonea e Eudicotiledonea. Com base nos resultados aqui apresentados sugerimos que um transposon ancestral do tipo hAT, presente nas angiospermas anteriormente à separação de Monocotiledonea e Eudicotiledonea, teve sua transposase capturada na formação de um gene com função celular. A partir do evento da domesticação, estas transposases seguiram dois caminhos evolutivos distintos, um como gene funcional e outro como um transposon tradicional. Estas duas formas de transposase do tipo hAT podem ser encontradas no genoma da cana-de-acúcar, representadas pelos elementos dos grupos I e II, respectivamente. / Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile genetic sequences. Their mutagenic capacity makes them important sources of variation in the genomes. These elements have another important evolutionary role as donors of functional protein domains in the formation of new genes. 276 cDNA clones homologous to TEs were previously identified in the Brazilian Sugarcane Expressed Sequence Tag Project (SUCEST) databases. In this work, we have obtained the full sequences of 156 for these clones. These sequences were compared with Genbank database. We have identified 9 families of transposons and 11 families of retrotransposons. The most representative families found amongst the transposons were MuDr and hAT (wich encompass Ac and Tam3), with 43 and 32 cDNAs, respectively. Amongst the retrotransposons, the most representative family was Hopscotch, with 25 cDNAs. After this global analysis, we have focused our investigation in the hAT-like cDNAs. A comparative analysis of these cDNAs has revealed a profile of two distinct groups. Group I is composed of sequences with high conservation at nucleotide level, it is present in the genome of all grasses analysed (hybrids and parentals of sugarcane, maize and rice) with low copy number, it is expressed in leaves and roots of sugarcane, and more intensely in callus. In addition, group I sequences have clustered with domesticated transposases. The group II is composed of more heterogeneous sequences similar with the original elements that constitute the hAT superfamily: hobo (from Drosophilla melanogaster), Ac (from Zea mays) and Tam3 (from Antirrhinum majus). This group was shown to be restricted to the genome of Saccharum, with higher copy number than group one. Inverse-PCR assays has identified terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) to the cDNA TE221 from group II. Primers based on the sequences of the TIRs allowed us to recover three elements hAT-like from sugarcane’s genomic DNA: one of 3,5kb and another of 4,2kb, and a MITE of 250 bp. These results corroborate the strategy applied in order to recover elements from the sugarcane´s genome. Sequences homologous to both sugarcane group I and group II were found also in maize and rice, as well as in arabidopsis databases. These data suggest that the divergence of the two groups occured before the separation between the classes Monocotiledonea and Eudicotiledonea. Based on our results, we suggest the existence of an ancestral transposon hAT-like, present in angiosperms before the separation between Monocotiledonea and Eudicotiledonea, of which the transposase was captured to compose a new gene with some cellular function. Since the domestication event, these transposases followed distinct evolutive pathways, one as a regular gene and another as a bona fide transposon. These two forms of hAT-like transposases could be found in the sugarcane’s genome, represented by the elements from groups I and II, respectively.

Os elementos de transposicão (TEs) são sequências genéticas móveis. Sua capacidade mutagênica faz deles uma importante fonte de variabilidade nos genomas. Outro importante papel dos TEs na evolução dos genomas é o de doadores de domínios protéicos na formação de novos genes. 276 clones de cDNA homólogos a TEs foram previamente identificados no banco de dados do SUCEST (projeto de sequenciamento de etiquetas expressas de cana-de-acúcar). Neste trabalho nós realizamos o sequenciamento completo de 156 destes clones e a classificação e caracterização de suas sequências comparando-as com bancos de dados. Foram identificadas 9 diferentes famílias de transposons e 11 diferentes famílias de retrotransposons. As famílias mais representadas entre os transposons foram MuDr e hAT (que engloba os elementos do tipo Ac e Tam3), para os quais foram identificados 43 e 32 clones de cDNA, respectivamente. Entre os retrotransposons, a família mais representada foi Hopscotch, apresentando 25 clones de cDNA. Após esta análise global, o foco das investigações voltou-se para os cDNAs do tipo hAT. Uma análise comparativa destes cDNAs revelou que as sequências homólogas a hAT estão distribuídas em dois grupos. O grupo I, é composto por sequências com alta conservação no nível de nucleotídeos, está presente no genoma de todas as gramíneas analisadas (híbridos e parentais da cana-de-acúcar, milho e arroz) com um baixo número de cópias, teve a sua expressão detectada em folhas, raízes e mais intensamente em calos cana. Além disso, apresenta alta similaridade de sequências com transposases domesticadas descritas na literatura. O grupo II, por sua vez, é composto por sequências mais heterogêneas, que apresentam similaridade com os transposons originais que constituem a superfamília hAT: hobo (de Drosophila melanogaster), Ac (de Zea mays) e Tam3 (de Antirrhinum majus). Sua distribuição é restrita ao genoma de Saccharum, com um número de cópias maior que o grupo I. Um ensaio de PCR-Inversa identificou terminações inversas repetidas (TIRs) para o cDNA TE221 do grupo II. A partir de iniciadores desenhados sobre estas TIRs foi possível recuperar dois elementos, de 3,5kb e 4,2kb, respectivamente, e um MITE de 250 pb, todos homólogos a hAT. Este resultado demonstrou que a estratégia utilizada para recuperar elementos do genoma da cana-de-açúcar a partir do cDNA TE221 mostrou-se eficiente. Homólogos aos grupos I e II de cana-de-acúcar foram identificados em bancos de dados de milho, arroz e arabidopsis. Estes dados sugerem que a separação dos dois grupos ocorreu antes da divergência entre as classes Monocotiledonea e Eudicotiledonea. Com base nos resultados aqui apresentados sugerimos que um transposon ancestral do tipo hAT, presente nas angiospermas anteriormente à separação de Monocotiledonea e Eudicotiledonea, teve sua transposase capturada na formação de um gene com função celular. A partir do evento da domesticação, estas transposases seguiram dois caminhos evolutivos distintos, um como gene funcional e outro como um transposon tradicional. Estas duas formas de transposase do tipo hAT podem ser encontradas no genoma da cana-de-acúcar, representadas pelos elementos dos grupos I e II, respectivamente. / Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile genetic sequences. Their mutagenic capacity makes them important sources of variation in the genomes. These elements have another important evolutionary role as donors of functional protein domains in the formation of new genes. 276 cDNA clones homologous to TEs were previously identified in the Brazilian Sugarcane Expressed Sequence Tag Project (SUCEST) databases. In this work, we have obtained the full sequences of 156 for these clones. These sequences were compared with Genbank database. We have identified 9 families of transposons and 11 families of retrotransposons. The most representative families found amongst the transposons were MuDr and hAT (wich encompass Ac and Tam3), with 43 and 32 cDNAs, respectively. Amongst the retrotransposons, the most representative family was Hopscotch, with 25 cDNAs. After this global analysis, we have focused our investigation in the hAT-like cDNAs. A comparative analysis of these cDNAs has revealed a profile of two distinct groups. Group I is composed of sequences with high conservation at nucleotide level, it is present in the genome of all grasses analysed (hybrids and parentals of sugarcane, maize and rice) with low copy number, it is expressed in leaves and roots of sugarcane, and more intensely in callus. In addition, group I sequences have clustered with domesticated transposases. The group II is composed of more heterogeneous sequences similar with the original elements that constitute the hAT superfamily: hobo (from Drosophilla melanogaster), Ac (from Zea mays) and Tam3 (from Antirrhinum majus). This group was shown to be restricted to the genome of Saccharum, with higher copy number than group one. Inverse-PCR assays has identified terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) to the cDNA TE221 from group II. Primers based on the sequences of the TIRs allowed us to recover three elements hAT-like from sugarcane’s genomic DNA: one of 3,5kb and another of 4,2kb, and a MITE of 250 bp. These results corroborate the strategy applied in order to recover elements from the sugarcane´s genome. Sequences homologous to both sugarcane group I and group II were found also in maize and rice, as well as in arabidopsis databases. These data suggest that the divergence of the two groups occured before the separation between the classes Monocotiledonea and Eudicotiledonea. Based on our results, we suggest the existence of an ancestral transposon hAT-like, present in angiosperms before the separation between Monocotiledonea and Eudicotiledonea, of which the transposase was captured to compose a new gene with some cellular function. Since the domestication event, these transposases followed distinct evolutive pathways, one as a regular gene and another as a bona fide transposon. These two forms of hAT-like transposases could be found in the sugarcane’s genome, represented by the elements from groups I and II, respectively.

<p>alpha-actinin is a ubiquitous protein found in most eukaryotic organisms. The ability to form dimers allows alpha-actinin to cross-link actin in different structures. In muscle cells alpha-actinin is found at the Z-disk of sarcomeres. In non-muscle cells alpha-actinin is found in zonula adherens or focal adhesion sites where it can bind actin to the plasma membrane.</p><p>alpha-actinin is the shortest member of the spectrin superfamily of proteins which also includes spectrin, dystrophin and utrophin. Several hypotheses suggest that alpha-actinin is the ancestor of this superfamily.</p><p>The structure of alpha-actinin in higher organisms has been well characterized consisting of three main domains: an N-terminal actin-binding domain with two calponin homology domains, a central rod domain with four spectrin repeats and a C-terminal calcium-binding domain. Data mining of genomes from diverse organisms has made possible the discovery of new and atypical alpha-actinin isoforms that have not been characterized yet.</p><p>Invertebrates contain a single alpha-actinin isoform, whereas most of the vertebrates contain four. These four isoforms can be broadly classified in two groups, muscle isoforms and non-muscle isoforms. Muscle isoforms bind actin in a calcium independent manner whereas non-muscle isoforms bind actin in a calcium-dependent manner.</p><p>Some of the protozoa and fungi isoforms are atypical in that they contain fewer spectrin repeats in the rod domain. We have purified and characterized two ancestral alpha-actinins from the parasite Entamoeba histolytica. Our results show that despite the shorter rod domain they conserve the most important functions of modern alpha-actinin such as actin-bundling formation and calcium-binding regulation. Therefore it is suggested that they are genuine alpha-actinins.</p><p>The phylogenetic tree of alpha-actinin shows that the four different alpha-actinin isoforms appeared after the vertebrate-invertebrate split as a result of two rounds of genome duplication. The atypical alpha-actinin isoforms are placed as the most divergent isoforms suggesting that they are ancestral isoforms. We also propose that the most ancestral alpha-actinin contained a single repeat in its rod domain. After a first intragene duplication alpha-actinin with two spectrin repeats were created and a second intragene duplication gave rise to modern alpha-actinins with four spectrin repeats.</p>

<p>Proteins of the band 4.1 superfamily are characterized by their sequence similarity to the ERM proteins ezrin, radixin and moesin, which are involved in cell motility, adhesion of cells, and signal transduction events. Little is however known of the function of ERM proteins in the nervous system, though an essential role for radixin and moesin in neuronal growth cone motility has been suggested. </p><p> This thesis is focused on the cloning, functional characterization and description of the tissue distribution in rat brain of MIR, a novel member of the band 4.1 superfamily. </p><p> The cDNA of MIR encods a protein of 445 amino acids which is composed of an ERM-homology domain and a RING finger, separated by an interregion. To reveal the cellular function of MIR, PC12 cell lines overexpressing MIR was generated and observed to inhibit NGF stimulated neurite outgrowth. </p><p> To elucidate the signal transduction of MIR by which it exerts its physiological activity, the yeast two-hybrid system was employed to screen for proteins that interact with MIR. A number of interactors known to regulate the cytoskeleton was obtained - among them myosin regulatory light chain-B which controls the actomyosin complex - and a novel type 2 membrane protein denoted NSAP for its similarity to saposin A-D. Overexpressed NSAP induced neurite outgrowth in PC12 cells and enhanced cell adhesion in fibroblasts. </p><p> The tissue distribution of MIR in rat brain, as determined by immunohistochemistry studies, showed that MIR is localized especially to neurons in hippocampus and cerebellum. The chromosomal localization of the MIR gene was assessed to 6p22.3-23, a region lost in the 6p23 deletion syndrome.</p><p> These results suggests that MIR is expressed in neurons in discrete regions of rat brain where it may regulate neurite outgrowth by modulating the cytoskeleton.</p>

<p>The Ras superfamily of GTPases embraces six major branches of proteins: the Ras, Rab, Ran, Arf, Rho and Miro subfamilies. The majority of GTPases function as binary switches that cycle between active GTP-bound and inactive GDP-bound states. This thesis will focus primarily on the biological functions of the Rho and Miro proteins. The Rho GTPases control the organization of the actin cytoskeleton and other associated activities, whereas the Miro GTPases are regulators of mitochondrial movement and morphology. </p><p>A diverse array of cellular phenomena, including cell movement and intracellular membrane trafficking events, are dependent on cytoskeletal rearrangements mediated by Rho GTPases. Although human Rho GTPases are encoded by 20 distinct genes, most studies involving Rho GTPases have focused on the three representatives RhoA, Rac1 and Cdc42, which each regulate specific actin-dependent cellular processes. In an effort to compare the effects of all Rho GTPase members in the same cell system, we transfected constitutively active Rho GTPases in porcine aortic endothelial (PAE) cells and examined their effects on the organization of the actin cytoskeleton. We identified a number of previously undetected roles of the different members of the Rho GTPases. Moreover, we demonstrated that the downstream effectors of Rho GTPases have a broader specificity than previously thought. </p><p>In a screen for novel Ras-like GTPases, we identified the Miro GTPases (Mitochondrial Rho). In our characterization of Miro, we established that these proteins influence mitochondrial morphology and serve functions in the transport of mitochondria along the microtubule system. Additionally, we provided evidence that Miro can be under control of calcium signaling pathways. Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that undergo continuous change in shape and distribution. Defects in mitochondrial dynamics are associated with several neurodegenerative diseases. In conclusion, our findings have contributed to a deeper understanding of the biological roles of Rho and Miro GTPases.</p>