A hybrid model integrating predictive capabilities of Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and optimization feature of Genetic Algorithm (GA) is developed for the purpose of inverse modeling. The proposed approach is applied to Superplastic forming of materials to predict the material properties which characterize the performance of a material. The study is carried out on two problems. For the first problem, ANN is trained to predict the strain rate sensitivity index m given the temperature and the strain rate. The performance of different gradient search methods used in training the ANN model is demonstrated. Similar approach is used for the second problem. The objective of which is to predict the input parameters, i.e. strain rate and temperature corresponding to a given flow stress value. An attempt to address one of the major drawbacks of ANN, which is the black box behavior of the model, is made by collecting information about the weights and biases used in training and formulating a mathematical expression. The results from the two problems are compared to the experimental data and validated. The results indicated proximity to the experimental data.

This thesis was developed in the frame of a Brazil-France cooperation agreement between the École des Mines d\'Albi-Carmaux and the Polytechnic School of Engineering of the University of Sao Paulo (EPUSP). It aims to contribute to the study of the mechanical behaviour of Ti6Al4V alloys especially in terms of superplastic forming. The general objective of this research is to develop non-conventional forming processes for new titanium alloys applied to aerospace components Therefore, in accordance of the equipment\'s available in the two groups, the work will be conducted either at the Ecole des Mines d\'Albi-Carmaux and either at EPUSP. This thesis aims to answer questions such as what are the implications in relation to the microstructural and mechanical behaviour of these alloys during superplastic and hot forming in order to establish a behaviour law for these alloys based on titanium. This requires a good knowledge of the properties of materials used in the superplastic and hot forming domain to control the parameters governing the phenomenon of superplasticity or high temperature plasticity. For this, a testing strategy and characterization methodology of those new titanium alloys was developed. The tests include high temperature uniaxial tensile tests on several Ti6Al4V alloys showing different initial grain sizes. Special focus was made on the microstructural evolution prior to testing (i.e. during specimen temperature increase and stabilization) and during testing. Testing range was chosen to cover the hot forming and superplastic deformation domain. Grain growth is depending on alloy initial microstructures but also on the duration of the test at testing temperature (static growth) and testing strain rate (dynamic growth). After testing microstructural evolutions of the alloys will be observed by optical micrograph or SEM and results are used to increase behaviour model accuracy. Advanced unified behaviour models where introduced in order to cover the whole strain rate and temperature range: kinematic hardening, strain rate sensitive and grain growth features are included in the model. In order to get validation of the behaviour model, it was introduced in ABAQUSR numerical simulation code and model predictions (especially macroscopic deformation and local grain growth) were compared, for one of the material investigated, to axisymmetric inflation forming tests of sheet metal parts, also known as bulge test. To obtain a simple control cycle, tests performed at IPT/LEL laboratory in San José Dos Campos in Brazil were operated with a constant strain rate. Results show a very good correlation with predictions and allows to conclude on an accuracy of the behaviour models of the titanium alloys in industrial forming conditions. / Esta tese desenvolvida dentro do acordo de cooperação internacional celebrado entre a Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo (EPUSP) e a École des Mines d\'Albi-Carmaux tem como tema principal a análise da influência da evolução microestrutural sobre o comportamento mecânico de chapa de liga de titânio - Ti-6Al- 4V sob condições superplásticas e trabalho a quente. O objetivo desta pesquisa é contribuir para o desenvolvimento de processos de conformação não convencional de chapas de ligas a base de titânio utilizadas na manufatura de componentes metálicos. Como objetivo específico, estabelecer uma correlação entre comportamento mecânico e a mudança microestrutural a partir de três tipos de ligas com diferentes tamanhos de grão iniciais (0.5, 3.0 e 4.9 ?m). Os testes foram realizados na faixa de temperatura de 700 a 950 °C combinados às taxas de deformação na faixa de 10-1 s-1 - 10-4 s-1. Para a metodologia, estabeleceu-se uma estratégia de ensaios mecânicos capaz de testar as hipóteses sobre o comportamento do material formuladas no início desta pesquisa. Em seguida, os ensaios mecânicos foram divididos em três partes. Na primeira, utilizou-se um simulador termomecânico modelo Gleeble 3800 para os ensaios a quente variando-se a taxa de deformação (??) entre 10-1 s-1 a 10-3 s-1 e temperaturas da ordem de 700 °C a 850 °C. Na segunda parte dos testes, priorizouse taxas de deformação mais lentas (10-2 s-1 - 10-4 s-1) e temperaturas mais elevadas (800 °C - 950 °C) objetivando atingir as deformações superplásticas do material, nesta etapa utilizou-se como equipamento uma máquina de tração modelo MTS 50kN com câmara de aquecimento acoplada. A terceira parte dos ensaios experimentais envolveu a conformação na condição superplástica por pressão hidrostática (Bulge test) realizadas no LEL-IPT de São José dos Campos. A partir da análise dos dados experimentais levantou-se os parâmetros introduzidos no modelo numérico de comportamento mecânico baseado na evolução da microestrutura da chapa testada permitindo a calibração do modelo numérico a partir das equações constituintes e finalmente introduzido no software de elementos finitos (ABAQUS 6.12) e construído a simulação numérica da conformação superplástica por pressão hidrostática. Os principais resultados indicaram uma forte correlação entre microestrutura inicial da conformação superplástica e a quente de onde se pode observar que tanto menor a microestrutura inicial maior será a quantidade do crescimento de grão. Os resultados da conformação superplástica de expansão multiaxial do domo hemisférico foram, então, comparados à simulação numérica permitindo confrontar os dados do modelo numérico do comportamento mecânico com a lei de comportamento estudada, o que possibilitou um melhor entendimento dos mecanismos da conformação plástica em condições de superplasticidade e também de trabalho a aquente do material.

No description available.

Superplastic deformation behaviour of AZ31 magnesium alloy having initial grain sizes 8, 11 and 17μm alloy was investigated at 673 K with initial strain rates ranging from 1x10-2 to 1x10-4 s-1. Mechanical data on fine grained AZ31 alloy with grain sizes 8 and 11 μm indicated a transition in deformation mechanisms. The strain rate sensitivity, m ~ 0.5 at low strain rates and m ~ 0.2 at high strain rates which suggest GBS and dislocation slip as the corresponding deformation mechanism. For coarse grained alloy having grain size 17 μm, m < 0.4 at low strain rates and ~ 0.2 at high strain rates, suggesting dislocation slip as the deformation mechanism. A superplastic maximum elongation of ~ 475% was observed for 8 μm alloy at low rate of deformation. At high strain rates, the deformation was non-superplastic for fine and coarse grained alloys. The contribution of GBS to total strain, ξ in the low strain rate regime was evaluated to be 50 – 60%, for both low and high elongation. EBSD studies indicated the maintenance of high fraction of high angle boundaries up to true strain of ~ 0.88 and a reduction in texture intensity. These observations show GBS as the dominant deformation mechanism for fine grained alloy. At higher strain rate, ξ was estimated to be 30%. Fraction of high angle boundaries was reduced and [0001] direction of grains was found to be rotated towards the tensile direction, suggesting dislocation slip. Based on mechanical data, flow localization and cavitation studies; the failure of the material during high rates of deformation was mainly due to flow localization. Extensive cavitation along with more uniform flow at a lower strain rate regime suggests the failure due to the cavity interlinkage and coalescence. The present GBS data are consistent with the previous relevant data in fine grained Mg based alloys in the low strain rate regime. The GBS data obtained in the dislocation regime in the present study are also in agreement with that of the previous investigations in fine grained Mg alloys.

The economical and environmental issues associated with fossil fuels have been urging the automotive industry to cut the fuel consumption and exhaust emission levels, mainly by reducing the weight of vehicles. However, customers increasing demands for safer, more powerful and luxurious vehicles have been adding more weight to the various categories of vehicles, even the smallest ones. Leading car manufacturers have shown that significant weight reduction, yet satisfying the growing demands of customers, would not be feasible without the extensive use of lightweight materials. Magnesium is the lightest constructional metal on earth, offering a great potential for weight-savings. However, magnesium and its alloys exhibit inferior ductility at low temperatures, limiting their practical sheet metal applications. Interestingly, some magnesium alloys exhibit superplastic behaviour at elevated temperatures; mirrored by the extraordinarily large ductility, surpassing that of conventional steels and aluminium alloys. Superplastic forming technique is the process used to form materials of such nature, having the ability to deliver highly-profiled, yet very uniform sheet-metal products, in one single stage. Despite the several attractions, the technique is not widely-used because of a number of issues and obstacles. This study aims at advancing the superplastic forming technique, and offering it as an efficient process for broader utilisation of magnesium alloys for sheet metal applications. The focus is primarily directed to the AZ31 magnesium alloy, since it is commercially available in sheet form, possesses good mechanical properties and high strength/weight ratio. A general multi-axial anisotropic microstructure-based constitutive model that describes the deformation behaviour during superplastic forming is first developed. To calibrate the model for the AZ31 magnesium alloy, systematic uniaxial and biaxial stretching tests are carried out over wide-ranging conditions, using 3 specially-designed fixtures. In a collaborative effort thereafter, the calibrated constitutive model is fed into a FE code in conjunction with a stability criterion, in order to accurately simulate, control and ultimately optimise the superplastic forming process. Special pneumatic bulge forming setup is used to validate some proposed optimisation schemes, by forming sheets into dies of various geometries. Finally, the materials post-superplastic-forming properties are investigated systematically, based on geometrical, mechanical and microstructural measures.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on January 31, 2008) Vita. Includes bibliographical references.

Esta tese contempla o desenvolvimento de uma prensa para conformação biaxial superplástica com sistema de controle in situ e real time de pressão e de temperatura, como também um módulo de monitoramento de deformação através da técnica de correlação digital de imagem. A referida prensa é capaz de atingir durante a conformação ótimas condições superplásticas através da instrumentação e do controle dedicado dos parâmetros que caracterizam o processo de conformação fluidoestática biaxial, pressão, temperatura e taxa de deformação. São seis os principais temas abordados e desenvolvidos nessa tese: (a) técnicas, métodos e requisitos da superplasticidade da liga de titânio Ti6Al4V; (b) concepção e construção da prensa que atenda aos requisitos do projeto; (c) instrumentação do ferramental; (d) implementação do sistema de controle; (e) definição e aplicação de metodologia de ensaio superplástico para conformação fluidoestática biaxial e (f) fabricação da peça modelo. A aplicação e desenvolvimento do sistema de controle em expansão fluidoestática biaxial envolve desde a escolha das condições de conformação, determinação do ciclo de pressão, implementação de controles dedicados que atendam aos requisitos de conformação até os métodos de determinação dos coeficientes de interesse (m, n e K). Com tal instrumentação é possível determinar os coeficientes a partir de ensaios biaxiais, ao invés de simplesmente utilizar os coeficientes de ensaios de tração uniaxiais. Realizou-se um ensaio superplástico fluidoestático biaxial de chapas de liga de Ti6AL4V controlado em torno de sua condição ótima. Em suma sobre o controle, o sistema de controle térmico minimiza o intervalo de tempo de estabilização da temperatura, sem sobressinal, reduzindo o tempo de exposição do material superplástico a altas temperaturas; o sistema de controle de pressão aplica um ciclo de pressurização que é responsável por realizar a conformação de forma que resulte em uma taxa de deformação específica que represente a condição de maior índice de sensibilidade a taxa de deformação, assim se caracteriza como ponto ótimo do processo. Os principais resultados são o Ferramental instrumentado e controlado para realização de conformação superplástica em atmosfera controlada e os sistemas de controle de temperatura, pressão e deformação, validados e testados de forma integrada em ensaios de conformação superplástica / This thesis contemplates the full development of a superplastic biaxial forming Press which contains an in situ and real time pressure and temperature control systems, as well as a deformation monitoring module that applies digital image correlation technique. The Press can achieve optimum superplastic forming conditions supported by dedicated instrumentation and control of the parameters that characterize the superplastic forming process; these parameters are pressure, temperature and strain rate. Six main topics are discussed: (a) techniques, methods and Ti6Al4V alloy superplastic requirements; (b) design and construction of the press that meets the project requirements; (c) Press instrumentation; (d) control system implementation; (e) definition and implementation of a new superplastic test methodology for bulge test and (f) a part model manufacturing. The application and development of the control system in biaxial forming process involves the selection of forming conditions, pressure cycle determination, implementation of dedicated controls that meet the forming requirements, besides methods for calculating important coefficients (m, n K). With the referred instrumentation, it is possible to determine these coefficients from biaxial tests, rather than simply using the uniaxial tensile tests coefficients. A Ti6Al4V alloy fluid static superplastic biaxial test was conducted, controlled around its optimum condition. Summarizing the control system, the thermal control system minimizes the stabilization temperature time, avoiding temperature overshooting, reducing the material time exposure at superplastic temperatures. The pressure control system applies a pressurization cycle, responsible for conducting the forming process, to achieve a specific strain rate. This represents the condition of maximum strain rate sensitivity, thus characterized as optimal process point. The main results are the instrumented and controlled superplastic biaxial forming Press efficient to conduct superplastic forming in a controlled atmosphere, and temperature, pressure and deformation control systems validated and tested in an integrated Superplastic forming tests.

Esta tese contempla o desenvolvimento de uma prensa para conformação biaxial superplástica com sistema de controle in situ e real time de pressão e de temperatura, como também um módulo de monitoramento de deformação através da técnica de correlação digital de imagem. A referida prensa é capaz de atingir durante a conformação ótimas condições superplásticas através da instrumentação e do controle dedicado dos parâmetros que caracterizam o processo de conformação fluidoestática biaxial, pressão, temperatura e taxa de deformação. São seis os principais temas abordados e desenvolvidos nessa tese: (a) técnicas, métodos e requisitos da superplasticidade da liga de titânio Ti6Al4V; (b) concepção e construção da prensa que atenda aos requisitos do projeto; (c) instrumentação do ferramental; (d) implementação do sistema de controle; (e) definição e aplicação de metodologia de ensaio superplástico para conformação fluidoestática biaxial e (f) fabricação da peça modelo. A aplicação e desenvolvimento do sistema de controle em expansão fluidoestática biaxial envolve desde a escolha das condições de conformação, determinação do ciclo de pressão, implementação de controles dedicados que atendam aos requisitos de conformação até os métodos de determinação dos coeficientes de interesse (m, n e K). Com tal instrumentação é possível determinar os coeficientes a partir de ensaios biaxiais, ao invés de simplesmente utilizar os coeficientes de ensaios de tração uniaxiais. Realizou-se um ensaio superplástico fluidoestático biaxial de chapas de liga de Ti6AL4V controlado em torno de sua condição ótima. Em suma sobre o controle, o sistema de controle térmico minimiza o intervalo de tempo de estabilização da temperatura, sem sobressinal, reduzindo o tempo de exposição do material superplástico a altas temperaturas; o sistema de controle de pressão aplica um ciclo de pressurização que é responsável por realizar a conformação de forma que resulte em uma taxa de deformação específica que represente a condição de maior índice de sensibilidade a taxa de deformação, assim se caracteriza como ponto ótimo do processo. Os principais resultados são o Ferramental instrumentado e controlado para realização de conformação superplástica em atmosfera controlada e os sistemas de controle de temperatura, pressão e deformação, validados e testados de forma integrada em ensaios de conformação superplástica / This thesis contemplates the full development of a superplastic biaxial forming Press which contains an in situ and real time pressure and temperature control systems, as well as a deformation monitoring module that applies digital image correlation technique. The Press can achieve optimum superplastic forming conditions supported by dedicated instrumentation and control of the parameters that characterize the superplastic forming process; these parameters are pressure, temperature and strain rate. Six main topics are discussed: (a) techniques, methods and Ti6Al4V alloy superplastic requirements; (b) design and construction of the press that meets the project requirements; (c) Press instrumentation; (d) control system implementation; (e) definition and implementation of a new superplastic test methodology for bulge test and (f) a part model manufacturing. The application and development of the control system in biaxial forming process involves the selection of forming conditions, pressure cycle determination, implementation of dedicated controls that meet the forming requirements, besides methods for calculating important coefficients (m, n K). With the referred instrumentation, it is possible to determine these coefficients from biaxial tests, rather than simply using the uniaxial tensile tests coefficients. A Ti6Al4V alloy fluid static superplastic biaxial test was conducted, controlled around its optimum condition. Summarizing the control system, the thermal control system minimizes the stabilization temperature time, avoiding temperature overshooting, reducing the material time exposure at superplastic temperatures. The pressure control system applies a pressurization cycle, responsible for conducting the forming process, to achieve a specific strain rate. This represents the condition of maximum strain rate sensitivity, thus characterized as optimal process point. The main results are the instrumented and controlled superplastic biaxial forming Press efficient to conduct superplastic forming in a controlled atmosphere, and temperature, pressure and deformation control systems validated and tested in an integrated Superplastic forming tests.

Cette thèse s’est déroulée dans le cadre d’une cotutelle internationale entre l’IMT - École des Mines d’Albi-Carmaux et l’Ecole Polytechnique de l’Université de Sao Paulo (EPUSP). Elle a pour but de contribuer à l’étude du comportement mécanique des alliages de titane Ti6Al4V, et plus spécialement dans le domaine du formage superplastique et du formage à chaud. L’objectif général de ce doctorat est de contribuer au développement de procédés de formages non conventionnels des alliages de titane pour applications aéronautiques. C’est pourquoi, en fonction des équipements disponibles sur les deux sites, les travaux de recherche se sont déroulés soit à l’Ecole des Mines soit à l’EPUSP. Cette thèse adresse la problématique scientifique des interactions entre le comportement mécanique dans le domaine du formage superplastique et de formage à chaud d’une part et la microstructure initiale et son évolution dans le domaine de sollicitation d’autre part. Pour cela une stratégie d’essais et de caractérisation a été développée et suivie. Les essais incluent des essais mécaniques uniaxiaux à haute température sur différents alliages Ti6Al4V présentant des microstructures initiales différentes (taille de grain 0,5; 3,0 et 4,9 μm). Une attention particulière a été portée à l’évolution microstructurale avant essai - c’est- à-dire durant sa montée en température et la stabilisation thermique de l’échantillon – et durant l’essai. Les conditions d’essai ont été choisies de façon à couvrir le domaine du formage à chaud et du formage superplastique, température de 700°C à 950°C et vitesse de déformation entre 10-1 s-1 et 10-4 s-1. La croissance de grain dépend de la microstructure initiale mais aussi de la durée de l’essai en température (croissance statique) et de la vitesse de déformation (croissance dynamique). Afin d’améliorer la validité du modèle des observations microstructurales de taille de grain sont effectués après les essais mécaniques par micrographie optique et Microscope Electronique à Balayage. Un modèle de comportement unifié a été introduit de façon à être capable de couvrir toute la plage de température et de vitesse de déformation : écrouissage cinématique non linéaire, sensibilité à la vitesse de déformation et loi de croissance de la taille des grains sont inclus dans le modèle. Afin de pouvoir valider le modèle, il a été introduit dans le code de simulation ABAQUS®. Les résultats des simulations (en particulier déformation macroscopique et taille de grain locale) ont été comparés, pour l’un des matériaux de l’étude, aux résultats d’un essai de gonflage axisymétrique de tôle. Pour obtenir un cycle de contrôle simple, les essais effectués au laboratoire de l’IPT/LEL à Sao José dos Campos au Brésil ont été opérés à vitesse de déformation constante. Les résultats montrent une très bonne corrélation avec les prédictions et permettent de conclure à une validation du modèle de comportement développé dans la thèse dans des conditions industrielles de formage de l’alliage de titane. / This thesis was developed in the frame of a Brazil-France cooperation agreement between the École des Mines d'Albi-Carmaux and the Polytechnic School of Engineering of the University of Sao Paulo (EPUSP). It aims to contribute to the study of the mechanical behaviour of Ti6Al4V alloys especially in terms of superplastic forming. The general objective of this research is to develop non-conventional forming processes for new titanium alloys applied to aerospace components. Therefore, in accordance of the equipment’s available in the two groups, the work will be conducted either at the Ecole des Mines d'Albi-Carmaux and either at EPUSP. This thesis aims to answer questions such as what are the implications in relation to the microstructural and mechanical behaviour of these alloys during superplastic and hot forming in order to establish a behaviour law for these alloys based on titanium. This requires a good knowledge of the properties of materials used in the superplastic and hot forming domain to control the parameters governing the phenomenon of superplasticity or high temperature plasticity. For this, a testing strategy and characterization methodology of those new titanium alloys was developed. The tests include high temperature uniaxial tensile tests on several Ti6Al4V alloys showing different initial grain sizes. Special focus was made on the microstructural evolution prior to testing (i.e. during specimen temperature increase and stabilization) and during testing. Testing range was chosen to cover the hot forming and superplastic deformation domain. Grain growth is depending on alloy initial microstructures but also on the duration of the test at testing temperature (static growth) and testing strain rate (dynamic growth). After testing microstructural evolutions of the alloys will be observed by optical micrograph or SEM and results are used to increase behaviour model accuracy. Advanced unified behaviour models where introduced in order to cover the whole strain rate and temperature range: kinematic hardening, strain rate sensitive and grain growth features are included in the model. In order to get validation of the behaviour model, it was introduced in ABAQUS numerical simulation code and model predictions (especially macroscopic deformation and local grain growth) were compared, for one of the material investigated, to axisymmetric inflation forming tests of sheet metal parts, also known as bulge test. To obtain a simple control cycle, tests performed at IPT/LEL laboratory in San José Dos Campos in Brazil were operated with a constant strain rate. Results show a very good correlation with predictions and allows to conclude on an accuracy of the behaviour models of the titanium alloys in industrial forming conditions.