No description available.

L'axe hypothalamo-hypophyso-surrénalien (HPA) permet de maintenir l'homéostasie de l'organisme face à divers stress. Qu'ils soient de nature psychologique, physique ou inflammatoire/infectieux, les stress provoquent la synthèse et la libération de CRH par l'hypothalamus. Les cellules corticotropes hypophysaires perçoivent ce signal et en réaction, produisent et sécrètent l'ACTH. Ceci induit la synthèse des glucocorticoïdes (Gc) par le cortex surrénalien; ces stéroïdes mettent le système métabolique en état d’alerte pour la réponse au stress et à l’agression. Les Gc ont le rôle essentiel de contrôler les défenses de l'organisme, en plus d'exercer une rétro-inhibition sur l'axe HPA. L'ACTH est une petite hormone peptidique produite par le clivage d'un précurseur: la pro-opiomélanocortine (POMC). À cause de sa position critique dans la normalisation de l'homéostasie, le contrôle transcriptionnel du gène Pomc a fait l'objet d'études approfondies au cours des dernières décennies. Nous savons maintenant que la région promotrice du gène Pomc permet une expression ciblée dans les cellules POMC hypophysaires. L'étude du locus Pomc par des technologies génomiques m'a permis de découvrir un nouvel élément de régulation qui est conservé à travers l'évolution des mammifères. La caractérisation de cet enhancer a démontré qu'il dirige une expression restreinte à l'hypophyse, et plus particulièrement dans les cellules corticotropes. De façon intéressante, l'activité de cet élément dépend d'un nouveau site de liaison recrutant un homodimère du facteur de transcription Tpit, dont l'expression est également limitée aux cellules POMC de l'hypophyse. La découverte de cet enhancer ajoute une toute nouvelle dimension à la régulation de l'expression de POMC. Les cytokines pro-inflammatoires IL6/LIF et les Gc sont connus pour leur antagonisme sur la réaction inflammatoire et sur le promoteur Pomc via l'action des facteurs de transcription Stat3 et GR respectivement. L'analyse génomique des sites liés ii par ces deux facteurs nous a révélé une interrelation complexe et a permis de définir un code transcriptionnel entre ces voies de signalisation. En plus de leur action par interaction directe avec l’ADN au niveau des séquences régulatrices, ces facteurs interagissent directement entre eux avec des résultats transcriptionnels différents. Ainsi, le recrutement de GR par contact protéine:protéine (tethering) sur Stat3 étant lié à l'ADN provoque un antagonisme transcriptionnel. Inversement, le tethering de Stat3 sur GR supporte une action synergique, tout comme leur co-recrutement à l'ADN sur des sites contigus ou composites. Lors d'une activation soutenue, ce synergisme entre les voies IL6/LIF et Gc induit une réponse innée de défense cellulaire. Ainsi lors d'un stress majeur, ce mécanisme de défense est mis en branle dans toutes les cellules et tissus. En somme, les travaux présentés dans cette thèse définissent les mécanismes transcriptionnels engagés dans le combat de l'organisme contre les stress. Plus particulièrement, ces mécanismes ont été décrits au niveau de la réponse globale des corticotropes et du gène Pomc. Il est essentiel pour l'organisme d'induire adéquatement ces mécanismes afin de faire face aux stress et d'éviter des dérèglements comme les maladies inflammatoires et métaboliques. / The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulates homeostasis in various conditions of stress contributing to both the stress response and its termination. Psychological, physical or inflammatory/infectious stresses all prompt the synthesis and secretion of hypothalamic CRH. The pituitary corticotrope cells receive this signal and in turn, secrete ACTH which triggers the synthesis of glucocorticoids (Gc) by the adrenal cortex; these steroids induce a general state of alertness in order to fight or flight aggressions and stresses. Glucocorticoids have the critical role to restrict the stress response by exerting a negative feedback on the HPA axis. ACTH is a small peptidic hormone produced after cleavage of a precursor protein: pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Due to its critical role in homeostasis, transcriptional control of the Pomc gene has been intensely studied during the last decades. Previous investigations identified a promoter region that is sufficient for expression of Pomc in the appropriate pituitary cells. Genome-wide studies of the Pomc locus led me to discover a novel regulatory element that is conserved throughout mammalian evolution. The activity of this enhancer is restricted to the pituitary, and more precisely to the corticotrope lineage. Interestingly, its activity depends on a novel transcription factor binding motif that binds homodimers of Tpit, a transcription factor that is only found in pituitary POMC cells. The discovery of this enhancer adds a new dimension in the control of pituitary Pomc expression. The IL6/LIF pro-inflammatory cytokines and the glucocorticoids are well known for their antagonism in control of the inflammatory response; at the Pomc promoter, their action is mediated by the transcription factors Stat3 and GR, respectively. The analysis of genomic sites bound by these two factors revealed a complex relationship and led us to define a transcription regulatory code linking these signalling pathways. In addition to their direct DNA interaction with cognate regulatory sequences, these factors iv interact with each other with different outcomes. Thus, the recruitment of GR on DNAbound Stat3 through protein:protein contacts (tethering) results in transcriptional antagonism. Conversely, Stat3 tethering to GR produces synergism; this is also the case when the two factors are co-recruited to DNA on contiguous or composite binding sites. Prolonged activation of the IL6/LIF and Gc pathways elicits a synergistic innate cell defense response in all cells and tissues. In summary, this doctoral work has defined transcriptional mechanisms that mediate and control the stress response. In particular, pituitary components of the stress response were defined at the level of the Pomc gene and as a global response of corticotrope cells. This response is critical for appropriate organism defense during stresses such as those produced in inflammatory and metabolic diseases.

L'axe hypothalamo-hypophyso-surrénalien (HPA) permet de maintenir l'homéostasie de l'organisme face à divers stress. Qu'ils soient de nature psychologique, physique ou inflammatoire/infectieux, les stress provoquent la synthèse et la libération de CRH par l'hypothalamus. Les cellules corticotropes hypophysaires perçoivent ce signal et en réaction, produisent et sécrètent l'ACTH. Ceci induit la synthèse des glucocorticoïdes (Gc) par le cortex surrénalien; ces stéroïdes mettent le système métabolique en état d’alerte pour la réponse au stress et à l’agression. Les Gc ont le rôle essentiel de contrôler les défenses de l'organisme, en plus d'exercer une rétro-inhibition sur l'axe HPA. L'ACTH est une petite hormone peptidique produite par le clivage d'un précurseur: la pro-opiomélanocortine (POMC). À cause de sa position critique dans la normalisation de l'homéostasie, le contrôle transcriptionnel du gène Pomc a fait l'objet d'études approfondies au cours des dernières décennies. Nous savons maintenant que la région promotrice du gène Pomc permet une expression ciblée dans les cellules POMC hypophysaires. L'étude du locus Pomc par des technologies génomiques m'a permis de découvrir un nouvel élément de régulation qui est conservé à travers l'évolution des mammifères. La caractérisation de cet enhancer a démontré qu'il dirige une expression restreinte à l'hypophyse, et plus particulièrement dans les cellules corticotropes. De façon intéressante, l'activité de cet élément dépend d'un nouveau site de liaison recrutant un homodimère du facteur de transcription Tpit, dont l'expression est également limitée aux cellules POMC de l'hypophyse. La découverte de cet enhancer ajoute une toute nouvelle dimension à la régulation de l'expression de POMC. Les cytokines pro-inflammatoires IL6/LIF et les Gc sont connus pour leur antagonisme sur la réaction inflammatoire et sur le promoteur Pomc via l'action des facteurs de transcription Stat3 et GR respectivement. L'analyse génomique des sites liés ii par ces deux facteurs nous a révélé une interrelation complexe et a permis de définir un code transcriptionnel entre ces voies de signalisation. En plus de leur action par interaction directe avec l’ADN au niveau des séquences régulatrices, ces facteurs interagissent directement entre eux avec des résultats transcriptionnels différents. Ainsi, le recrutement de GR par contact protéine:protéine (tethering) sur Stat3 étant lié à l'ADN provoque un antagonisme transcriptionnel. Inversement, le tethering de Stat3 sur GR supporte une action synergique, tout comme leur co-recrutement à l'ADN sur des sites contigus ou composites. Lors d'une activation soutenue, ce synergisme entre les voies IL6/LIF et Gc induit une réponse innée de défense cellulaire. Ainsi lors d'un stress majeur, ce mécanisme de défense est mis en branle dans toutes les cellules et tissus. En somme, les travaux présentés dans cette thèse définissent les mécanismes transcriptionnels engagés dans le combat de l'organisme contre les stress. Plus particulièrement, ces mécanismes ont été décrits au niveau de la réponse globale des corticotropes et du gène Pomc. Il est essentiel pour l'organisme d'induire adéquatement ces mécanismes afin de faire face aux stress et d'éviter des dérèglements comme les maladies inflammatoires et métaboliques. / The hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulates homeostasis in various conditions of stress contributing to both the stress response and its termination. Psychological, physical or inflammatory/infectious stresses all prompt the synthesis and secretion of hypothalamic CRH. The pituitary corticotrope cells receive this signal and in turn, secrete ACTH which triggers the synthesis of glucocorticoids (Gc) by the adrenal cortex; these steroids induce a general state of alertness in order to fight or flight aggressions and stresses. Glucocorticoids have the critical role to restrict the stress response by exerting a negative feedback on the HPA axis. ACTH is a small peptidic hormone produced after cleavage of a precursor protein: pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC). Due to its critical role in homeostasis, transcriptional control of the Pomc gene has been intensely studied during the last decades. Previous investigations identified a promoter region that is sufficient for expression of Pomc in the appropriate pituitary cells. Genome-wide studies of the Pomc locus led me to discover a novel regulatory element that is conserved throughout mammalian evolution. The activity of this enhancer is restricted to the pituitary, and more precisely to the corticotrope lineage. Interestingly, its activity depends on a novel transcription factor binding motif that binds homodimers of Tpit, a transcription factor that is only found in pituitary POMC cells. The discovery of this enhancer adds a new dimension in the control of pituitary Pomc expression. The IL6/LIF pro-inflammatory cytokines and the glucocorticoids are well known for their antagonism in control of the inflammatory response; at the Pomc promoter, their action is mediated by the transcription factors Stat3 and GR, respectively. The analysis of genomic sites bound by these two factors revealed a complex relationship and led us to define a transcription regulatory code linking these signalling pathways. In addition to their direct DNA interaction with cognate regulatory sequences, these factors iv interact with each other with different outcomes. Thus, the recruitment of GR on DNAbound Stat3 through protein:protein contacts (tethering) results in transcriptional antagonism. Conversely, Stat3 tethering to GR produces synergism; this is also the case when the two factors are co-recruited to DNA on contiguous or composite binding sites. Prolonged activation of the IL6/LIF and Gc pathways elicits a synergistic innate cell defense response in all cells and tissues. In summary, this doctoral work has defined transcriptional mechanisms that mediate and control the stress response. In particular, pituitary components of the stress response were defined at the level of the Pomc gene and as a global response of corticotrope cells. This response is critical for appropriate organism defense during stresses such as those produced in inflammatory and metabolic diseases.

Modification of the surface chemistry of materials used as implants in biomedical applications affords the ability to control cell adhesion, prevent inflammation and enhance integration with the host. Titanium and its alloys are strong and lightweight thereby making them desirable for applications such as hip and knee replacements, dental implants, and cardiac pacemaker implants. However, the lifetime of these implants is often limited by poor incorporation into the surrounding bone which results in loosening and wear. In order to overcome these limitations we have studied the modification of titanium substrates with a self-assembled monolayer that can be used to perform surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) of a monomer to afford polymer brushes that effectively prevent the adhesion of cells. In addition, the polymer brushes afford the ability to tether a peptide sequence. Specific peptides containing adhesion sequences have been tethered to the polymer brushes. The resulting surfaces promote cell adhesion and osteoblast differentiation, thereby increasing bone tissue formation around the implant resulting in better incorporation of the implant.

L'abondance d'éléments génétiques mobiles dans le génome humain a un impact critique sur son évolution et son fonctionnement. Même si la plupart des éléments transposables sont inactifs en raison de l'accumulation de mutations, le rétrotransposon LINE-1 (Long Interspersed Element-1 ; ou L1) continue de se mobiliser et d'influer sur notre génome. Il a ainsi contribué à l'évolution de l'homme moderne, mais aussi à l'apparition de maladies génétiques. Les séquences du rétrotransposon L1 correspondent à 17% de la masse totale de l’ADN humain. Une copie active de L1 est capable de se mobiliser de manière autonome par un mécanisme de type «copier-coller» qui met en jeu un intermédiaire ARN et une étape de transcription inverse. Cependant, peu de choses sont connues sur les voies cellulaires impliquées dans la mobilité de L1. Notre laboratoire a découvert, par des cribles double-hybride, une interaction entre la protéine ORF2p de L1 et le récepteur α associé aux œstrogènes (ERRα), un membre de la famille des récepteurs nucléaires. Ici, nous avons confirmé et étendu cette observation à plusieurs autres membres de la superfamille des récepteurs de stéroïdes en utilisant un test de double-hybride fluorescent (F2H) en culture cellulaire. Pour mieux comprendre le rôle potentiel d’ERRα dans le cycle de rétrotransposition de L1, nous avons effectué des expériences de suppression et de surexpression qui suggèrent qu’ERRα est un régulateur positif de la rétrotransposition. Collectivement, ces données relient les voies de signalisation des stéroïdes avec la régulation post-traductionnelle de la rétrotransposition de L1, ce qui suggère un modèle par lequel ERRα et probablement autres récepteurs nucléaires peuvent recruter le RNP L1 vers des emplacements chromosomiques spécifiques. / The abundance of genetic mobile elements in our DNA has a critical impact on the evolution and function of the human genome. Even if most transposable elements are inactive due to the accumulation of mutational events, the Long INterspersed Element-1 (LINE-1 or L1) retrotransposon continues to diversify and impact our genome, being involved in the evolution of modern humans and in the appearance of genetic diseases or in tumorigenesis. L1 forms 17% of human DNA. It is autonomously active being replicated through an RNA-mediated ‘copy-and-paste’ mechanism. The L1 element encodes two proteins, ORF1p and ORF2p, which associate with the L1 mRNA to form L1 ribonucleoprotein particles, the core of the retrotransposition machinery. However, little is known about the cellular pathways involved in L1 replication. Our laboratory has discovered by yeast 2-hybrid screens an interaction between L1 ORF2p and the estrogen-related receptor α (ERRα), a member of the nuclear receptor family. Here, we confirmed and extended this observation to several other members of the steroid receptor superfamily using a fluorescent two-hybrid assay (F2H) in human cultured cells. To get further insight into the potential role of ERR in L1 replication cycle, we performed ERR siRNA-mediated knock-down and overexpression experiments, which suggest that ERR is a positive regulator of retrotransposition. Moreover, the artificial tethering and concentration of ERR to a large and repetitive genomic array inhibits retrotransposition. Collectively, these data link steroid signaling pathways with the post-translational regulation of L1 retrotransposition, suggesting a model by which ERRα, and probably several other nuclear receptors, can recruit the L1 RNP to specific chromosomal locations, acting as tethering factors.

Cytokinesis is the last step of cell cycle when two individual daughter cells separate in process called abscission. This process involves various cellular membrane structures such as endoplasmic reticulum or trans-Golgi network. Moreover, recent investigation has also highlighted an important role of recycling endosomes. The membrane dynamics appear to be important during cell division especially for the formation of new plasma membrane between two daughter cells. Numerous studies suggest that cytokinesis is tightly linked with highly sophisticated transmembrane shuttle that is controlled by Ras-superfamily members such as Rab and Ral proteins. Moreover, during last years has also been revealed the involvement of tethering factors which mediate the fusion of intracellular vesicles with the target plasma membrane. The best known tethering factor is the evolutionary conserved exocyst complex found in all eukaryotic cells. This protein complex is composed of eight subunits (Sec3, Sec5, Sec6, Sec8, Sec10, Sec15, Exo70 and Exo84) and was found to interact with members of Ras- superfamily suggesting its involvement in the regulation of cytokinesis. Although the exact mechanism remains shrouded in fog this work suppose the possible interactions among Ras- like proteins and exocyst members which may...

During the course of evolution the early land plants gained extensive innovations that can be seen in modern day plants. The polar growth is an ancient feature of eukaryotic cells and is one of preadaptations that helped plants in successful colonization of land. The polar growth in plants regulates not only the direction of cell expansion and structural properties of cell wall but especially also the orientation of cell division, and is governed by various factors, including the exocyst complex. The exocyst is a well conserved vesicle tethering multi-subunit complex involved in tethering of secretory vesicles to the target membrane. The essential role of the exocyst complex in regulation of various cellular processes in Angiosperms is now well documented. Here I present results of a doctoral project that contributed to phylogenetic analyses of the land plant exocyst complex and especially to uncovering functions of three moss exocyst subunits, namely EXO70 (isoform PpEXO70.3d), SEC6 and SEC3 (isoforms PpSEC3A and PpSEC3B) in the model organism Physcomitrella patens. Various knock-out (KO) mutants in several moss exocyst subunits (Ppexo70.3d, Ppsec6, Ppsec3a and Ppsec3b) show pleiotropic defects directly or indirectly linked to the cell polarity regulation. Cell elongation and differentiation,...

The coiled-coil motif is present in proteins from all kingdoms of life. Its structure is based on a repeating sequence of 7 amino acids with hydrophobic residues at positions 1 and 4, which folds into an alpha-helix. Two, or more, alpha-helices wind around each other based on hydrophobic interactions forming the coiled-coil. Structural variations include length, deviations from the canonical form based on the heptad repeat, as well as the orientation and number of alpha-helices. They are involved in a wide variety of cellular processes including vesicle tethering and signal transmission along their length. In order to transmit signal, the protein must be able to dynamically rearrange its structure. An outstanding example of a coiled-coil that needs to rearrange its structure to perform its function is the early endosomal tether EEA1, which has been shown to increase its flexibility upon binding to the active form of the small GTPase Rab5. That conformational change generates an entropic collapse that brings the ends of the protein closer to each other. Nevertheless, the recycling from the more flexible state to its original extended conformation was not addressed. Herein, the entropic collapse mechanism was further studied and the full EEA1 cycle between extended and flexible states described. In addition to these studies, other coiled-coil proteins were assessed to determine if they also experience a binding-induced entropic collapse. One of the strategies to investigate the entropic collapse mechanism was to compare the adhesive forces along the two alpha-helices of the EEA1 dimer in its extended and flexible conformations. To this end, an experiment was designed to unwind the dimer using optical tweezers, a force-spectroscopy method that uses a highly focused laser beam to manipulate microscopic objects. Each EEA1 monomer was attached to a distinct DNA piece using a site-specific enzymatic reaction. The DNA pieces were linked to two optically trapped micron-sized beads. And the distance between the optical traps increased to unwind the EEA1. A second strategy to investigate the entropic collapse was to evaluate EEA1 dynamics in solution using dual color fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy (dcFCCS). EEA1 C-termini was labeled with two different fluorophores. Fluctuations on fluorescent intensities caused by the dyes crossing a confocal volume were recorded over time. Based on an analysis of these fluctuations, a conformational change in EEA1 from semi-flexible to flexible upon addition of active Rab5 was described. This is in agreement with the previously reported entropic collapse. More importantly, EEA1 was shown to cycle between semi-flexible and flexible states by adding Rab5:GTP and waiting for the GTP to hydrolyse. To determine whether other proteins experience a binding-induced entropic collapse, coiled-coil proteins that share structural and functional similarities with EEA1 were evaluated. Rotary shadowing EM images of the target protein alone and binding with its suspected allosteric effector were compared. It was found that ELKS, a coiled-coil protein involved in vesicle trafficking, undergoes an increase in flexibility upon binding with the active form of Rab6. Thus, hinting that the entropic collapse may indeed be a general mode of action for at least a sub-group of long coiled-coil proteins. Overall, the major contributions of this thesis are to describe the full entropic collapse cycle on EEA1 and to show a second example of a coiled-coil protein experiencing a binding induced flexibility increase.:List of Figures List of Tables List of Equations List of Abbreviations 1 Introduction 1.1 EEA1 as an endosomal tether 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials 2.2 Methods 2.2.1 Sub-cloning 2.2.2 Protein expression and purification 2.2.3 Protein-protein binding assays 2.2.4 Electron microscopy 2.2.5 Analysis of electron microscopy 2.2.6 Generation of DNA handles for protein-DNA conjugates 2.2.7 Adding SortaseA recognition site to EEA1 2.2.8 Protein-DNA conjugation3 2.2.9 Sample preparation for optical tweezers 2.2.10 Dual color labeling of EEA1 2.2.11 Fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy 2.2.12 Generation of dsDNA for dcFCCS calibration 2.2.13 RabGTPase nucleotide loading 2.2.14 Liposome preparation 2.2.15 MCBs preparation 3 Unwinding EEA1 coiled-coil domain 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 Optical tweezers for EEA1 unwinding 3.1.2 SortaseA-catalysed ligation 3.2 Aims 3.3 Results 3.3.1 Optimization of SortaseA-catalysed ligation 3.3.2 Formation of EEA1-DNA handle conjugate 3.3.3 EEA1 unwinding experiments 3.4 Discussion 4 EEA1 entropic collapse is recyclable 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Advantages of dcFCCS vs FCS 4.1.2 Requirements for dcFCCS measurements 4.1.3 dcFCCS for end polymer dynamics analysis 4.2 Aims 4.3 Results 4.3.1 System preparation and dcFCCS calibration 4.3.2 Labelling of EEA1 4.3.3 Comparing FCS vs dcFCCS 4.3.4 EEA1 entropic collapse shown by dcFCCS 4.3.5 EEA1 flexibility change is recyclable 4.4 Discussion 5 Entropic collapse as a general mechanism 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Aims 5.3 Results 5.3.1 ELKS increases its flexibility upon binding active Rab6 5.3.2 p115-GM130 complex observed by rotary shadowing EM 5.4 Discussion 6 Conclusions and outlook References

No description available.

A mecânica celular jaz nas propriedades materiais da membrana plasmática, fundamentalmente uma bicamada fosfolipídica com espessura de dimensões moleculares. Além de forças elásticas, tal material bidimensional também experimenta tensões viscosas devido ao seu comportamento fluido (presumivelmente newtoniano) na direção tangencial. A despeito da notável concordância entre teoria e experimentos biofísicos sobre a geometria de membranas celulares, ainda não se faz presente um método computacional para simulação de sua (real) dinâmica viscosa governada pela lei de Boussinesq-Scriven. Assim sendo, introduzimos uma formulação variacional mista de três campos para escoamentos viscosos de superfícies fechadas curvas. Nela, o fluido circundante é levado em conta considerando-se uma restrição de volume interior, ao passo que uma restrição de área corresponde à inextensibilidade. As incógnitas são a velocidade, o vetor curvatura e a pressão superficial, todas estas interpoladas com elementos finitos lineares contínuos via estabilização baseada na projeção do gradiente de pressão. O método é semi-implícito e requer a solução de apenas um único sistema linear por passo de tempo. Outro ingrediente numérico proposto é uma força que mimetiza a ação de uma pinça óptica, permitindo interação virtual com a membrana, onde a qualidade e o refinamento de malha são mantidos por remalhagem adaptativa automática. Extensivos experimentos numéricos de dinâmica de relaxação são apresentados e comparados com soluções quasi-analíticas. É observada estabilidade temporal condicional com uma restrição de passo de tempo que escala como o quadrado do tamanho de malha. Reportamos a convergência e os limites de estabilidade de nosso método e sua habilidade em predizer corretamente o equilíbrio dinâmico de compridas e finas elongações cilíndricas (tethers) que surgem a partir de pinçamentos membranais. A dependência de forma membranal com respeito a uma velocidade imposta de pinçamento também é discutida, sendo que há um valor limiar de velocidade abaixo do qual um tether não se forma de início. Testes adicionais ilustram a robustez do método e a relevância dos efeitos viscosos membranais quando sob a ação de forças externas. Sem dúvida, ainda há um longo caminho a ser trilhado para o entendimento completo da mecânica celular (há de serem consideradas outras estruturas tais como citoesqueleto, canais iônicos, proteínas transmembranares, etc). O primeiro passo, porém, foi dado: a construção de um esquema numérico variacional capaz de simular a intrigante dinâmica das membranas celulares. / Cell mechanics lies on the material properties of the plasmatic membrane, fundamentally a two-molecule-thick phospholipid bilayer. Other than bending elastic forces, such a two-dimensional interfacial material also experiences viscous stresses due to its (presumably Newtonian) surface fluid tangential behaviour. Despite the remarkable agreement on membrane shapes between theory and biophysical experiments, there is no computational method for simulating its (actual) viscous dynamics governed by the Boussinesq- Scriven law. Accordingly, we introduce a mixed three-field variational formulation for viscous flows of closed curved surfaces. In it, the bulk fluid is taken into account by means of an enclosed-volume constraint, whereas an area constraint stands for the membranes inextensible character. The unknowns are the velocity, vector curvature and surface pressure fields, all of which are interpolated with linear continuous finite elements by means of a pressure-gradient-projection scheme. The method is semi-implicit and it requires the solution of a single linear system per time step. Another proposed ingredient is a numerical force that emulates the action of an optical tweezer, allowing for virtual interaction with the membrane, where mesh quality and refinement are maintained by adaptively remeshing. Extensive relaxation experiments are reported and compared with quasi-analytical solutions. Conditional time stability is observed, with a time step restriction that scales as the square of the mesh size. We discuss both convergence and the stability limits of our method, its ability to correctly predict the dynamical equilibrium of the tether due to tweezing. The dependence of the membrane shape on imposed tweezing velocities is also addressed. Basically, there is a threshold velocity value below which the tethers shape does not arise at first. Further tests illustrate the robustness of the method and show the significance of viscous effects on membranes deformation under external forces. Undoubtedly, there is still a long way to track toward the understanding of celullar mechanics (one still has to account other structures such as cytoskeleton, ion channels, transmembrane proteins, etc). The first step has given, though: the design of a numerically robust variational scheme capable of simulating the engrossing dynamics of fluid cell membranes.