The topic of capital structure has been one that has plagued the academic world for a number of years. There have been numerous works published on the subject which have presented such theories as the Modigliani and Miller Propositions, the Trade-off Theory, Pecking Order Theory, Signaling Theory and Agency Cost Theory to name a few. However, little research has been done on the application of these and other theories to banking institutions located in Southern Africa. This adds increased complexity to the determining of a local bank’s capital structure policy and the difficulty is further exacerbated by the increased application of regulatory control. In the wake of the recent global financial crisis, banking institutions have been placed under the spotlight and their capital adequacy levels come into question. A need was identified to investigate the impact that capital adequacy has on a bank’s performance and whether it achieves its purpose of increasing stability amongst banks. This study analysed the determinants of the capital structure of banks in South Africa based on secondary financial data and by performing this analysis attempted to establish trends in capital structure policy and regulatory compliance. The study also attempted to identify best practices that contribute to the overall value and performance of the banking institution. The expectation is that the correct application of capital structure theory and compliance with regulations will decrease a bank’s risk profile and in turn result in a more stable monetary system and economy. Overall, the results of the analysis were inconclusive, but lay the basis for potential future research. Conclusions drawn from the results and literature create greater understanding of the dynamics of capital structure and its implications to South African Banks. Copyright 2011, University of Pretoria. All rights reserved. The copyright in this work vests in the University of Pretoria. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the University of Pretoria. Please cite as follows: Naidu, W 2011, The implications of capital structure theory and regulation for South African banking institutions, MCom dissertation, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, viewed yymmdd < http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/available/etd-01272012-122305 / > C12/4/97/gm / Dissertation (MCom)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Financial Management / unrestricted

Entrepreneurship plays an integral role in innovation, job creation and economic growth, and financing is a key component in facilitating this process. In recent years, the financing industry has taken significant technological leaps forward—perhaps most notably through the introduction of alternative solutions to institutional investors, such as crowdfunding. At the same time, the distinct economic role of these new technologies is still largely unknown. The study aims to examine why growth-oriented entrepreneurs in Sweden choose equity-based crowdfunding. The findings are analyzed through the lens of the pecking order theory, i.e., the notion that entrepreneurs select the cheapest and least risky way to finance a given solution. This article builds on qualitative research with a multiple case study with five cases. The primary data is collected through semi-structured interviews following a topic guide and secondary data from investment material. Further, entrepreneurs choose external equity because of growth and network, and specifically crowdfunding is selected due to ambassadors, marketing, credibility, control keeping, and as a process to become a listed company. The results show that crowdfunding interrupts the pecking order theory.

Gröna obligationer, ett obligationslån där lånet måste knytas till ett hållbart projekt, är ettväxande begrepp i världen. Sverige är ett av de länder i framkant vad gäller användandet avdenna typ av obligationer. Allt fler investerare är måna om att investera i hållbara alternativ,där just gröna obligationer dykt upp som ett möjligt val. Men vilka motivationsfaktorer finnsdet som får företagen att vilja emittera dessa? Denna studie syftar till att besvara frågan om detråder några skillnader i lönsamhet för bolag som har emitterat gröna obligationer gentemot desom inte har.Utifrån författarnas kännedom finns det ingen liknande studie genomförd på den svenskamarknaden för tillfället. En tidigare studie har dock genomförts på den kinesiska marknadenmed ett resultat som påvisar en positiv relation mellan lönsamhet och gröna obligationer tillföljd av bolagets möjlighet att sänka sin kapitalkostnad.Studien genomfördes utifrån data mellan 2019-2021 på den svenska Large Cap marknaden.Både för hela men också specifikt för sektorer där gröna obligationer har tillämpats merfrekvent. Avkastning på totalt kapital (ROA) har använts som lönsamhetsmått medan grönaobligationer utgjorts av en binär variabel där de olika bolagen tilldelats en etta eller nollaberoende på om de haft gröna obligationer under hela det mätta året respektive inte. Studienhar tagit avstamp från trade-off och pecking-order theory som har sina synsätt på hur bolag börhantera sin skuldsättningsgrad och prioritera sina valmöjligheter att ta in ny finansiering.Studien har även använt sig av aktieägarteorin och intressentteorin för att återkoppla tillbolagens bakomliggande motiveringar att fatta de beslut de tar.Resultatet från studien visade inget signifikant samband mellan lönsamhet och grönaobligationer för svenska Large Cap eller för de branscherna som testades enskilt. Denna studiehar trots det bidragit med ny kunskap om hur relationen mellan gröna obligationer ochlönsamhet ser ut på en marknad där det inte testats förut.

Det här är en kvantitativ studie av hur kreditpreferenser hos mikrobolag med en årsomsättning om mindre än 10 miljoner SEK beror av branschtillhörighet och företagsstorlek. Mikrobolag är små bolag med mindre än 10 personer anställda och en årsomsättning på mindre än 2 miljoner euro. Det teoretiska ramverket utgår från asymmetrisk informationsteori och mer specifikt från pecking order theory, POT samt trade off-teorin. Kreditpreferenserna mäts genom två olika parametrar, dels genom mikrobolagens avsättning till periodiseringsfonder vilket kan ses som ett mellanting mellan extern och intern finansiering, dels genom förekomsten av externa lån från kreditinstitut. Branscherna som undersöks är tillverkning samt tjänster vilka anses skilja sig åt vad gäller kreditpreferenser. Tillverkningsbranschen har större anläggningstillgångar vilket anses göra det lättare för dem att få extern kredit enligt trade off-teorin. Tjänstebranschen däremot, med mer immateriella tillgångar skulle då föredra periodiseringsfonder eftersom enligt POT så föredrar mindre företag internt genererat kapital. Ett antal hypoteser ställs upp som sedan testas med chi-två. Resultatet motsäger delvis teorierna. Från studien framgår dock att de undersökta företagen i tjänstebranschen har större preferenser för användning av periodiseringsfond än tillverkningsbranschen. En slutsats från studien är alltså att branschtillhörighet har betydelse för kreditpreferenserna. För företagsstorlek går inte att dra några säkra slutsatser.

I denna studie testas tio hypoteser som relaterar till finansiell teori för att se hur väl teorin kan förklara skuldsättningsgraden i små börsnoterade bolag. De teorier som testas är avvägningsteorin (trade-off theory), hackordningsteorin (pecking order theory) samt teorier relaterade till asymmetrisk information och agentkostnader. Testen genomförs med multipel linjär regressionsanalys och de undersökta bolagen är samtliga bolag med färre än 200 anställda på tre av de mindre börslistorna i Sverige. Resultatet visar stöd för åtta av de tio undersökta hypoteserna och är i flera avseenden tydligare än i tidigare studier som testar onoterade små bolag eller ett bredare urval av bolag. / This study tests ten hypotheses related to financial theory in order to determine how well the theory can explain capital structure in small public SMEs. The tested theories are trade-off theory, pecking order theory and theories related to asymmetric information and agent-principal costs. Multiple linear regression analysis is used to test the theories on SMEs with fewer than 200 employees listed on three of Sweden’s smaller stock-exchange lists. The results show statistical significant support for eight out of ten hypotheses, and these results are in many aspects clearer than in studies that test unlisted SMEs as well as studies with broader samples of listed firms.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:31:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Marcos Robertoprot.pdf: 3270286 bytes, checksum: 656412122410522073af0f0ac5a7066e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-08-03 / Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie / The aim of this study is to verify the influence of the sector of activities, economic and market factors and business performance in the definition of capital structure. It uses data from Economática with 415 Brazilian companies that operated in the capital market (BM&FBOVESPA), between 2001 and 2014, to examine the behavior to such dimensions and their adherence to the wider theoretical set today. Inappropriate decisions of capital structure raises the cost of capital, hindering acceptable investments that maximize the wealth of the owners. Many studies regarding the indebtedness of companies were made in recent decades, but so far has no obvious response of relevance or lack thereof. In this sense, one can conclude that we do not have a theory fully accepted on the capital structure. It is difficult to generalize about funding policies because they differ widely from company to company and in the various sectors of activity. The specific variables to business performance continue to be used exhaustively to seek underpin a theoretical framework on the subject. Other studies, on a smaller scale, mainly in Brazil, investigate a possible influence of the sectors of activity and the economics and market conditions / restrictions in the choice of capital structure. In this sense, realizing the gap of capital structure studies in Brazil, that address sectors of activity and economic and market variables, it opens up the opportunity for this research project. As a result it appears that, after robust regression problems correct order autocorrelation of errors and heteroscedasticity, the variables average leverage of sector, investment of sector, Ibovespa, GDP, inflation, market-to-book, Tobin's Q, profitability, liquidity, growth and business risk were statistically significant in order to explain the variations dependent variable, ie, leverage the market value. Other variables, such as concentration of the sector, interest rate, size and tangibility, did not show, after the robust regression, statistical significance. As a result it appears that, after robust regression correct order autocorrelation problems of errors and heteroscedasticity, the average leverage variables sector, industry investment, Ibovespa, gdp, inflation, market-to-book, Tobin's Q, profitability, liquidity, growth and business risk were statistically significant in order to explain the variations of the dependent variable, ie, leverage at market value. Other variables, such as concentration of the sector, interest rate, size and tangibility, did not show, after the robust regression, statistical significance. / O objetivo principal deste estudo é verificar a influência do setor de atividades, dos fatores econômicos e de mercado e do desempenho empresarial na definição da estrutura de capital. Utiliza-se de dados da Economática com 415 empresas brasileiras que atuaram no mercado de capitais (BM&FBOVESPA), no período entre 2001 e 2014, buscando examinar o comportamento de tais dimensões e sua aderência ao conjunto teórico mais difundido atualmente. Decisões inadequadas de estrutura de capital eleva o custo de capital, dificultando investimentos aceitáveis que maximize a riqueza dos proprietários. Muitos estudos em relação ao endividamento das empresas foram realizados nas últimas décadas, mas, até agora, não foi encontrada uma resposta de relevância ou falta dela. Neste sentido, pode-se concluir que não temos ainda uma teoria totalmente aceita sobre a estrutura de capital. É difícil generalizar sobre políticas de financiamento, pois elas diferem bastante de empresa para empresa e nos diversos setores de atividades. As variáveis específicas de desempenho empresarial continuam sendo usadas de forma exaustiva para buscar alicerçar um arcabouço teórico a respeito do tema. Outros estudos, em menor escala, principalmente no Brasil, investigam uma possível influência do setor de atividade e das condições/restrições econômicas e de mercado na escolha da estrutura de capital. Neste sentido, percebendo a lacuna de estudos de estrutura de capital no Brasil, que contemplem setor de atividades e variáveis econômicas e de mercado, abre-se a oportunidade para a contribuição deste projeto de pesquisa. Como resultado constata-se que, após regressão robusta visando corrigir problemas de autocorrelação dos erros e heterocedasticidade, que as variáveis alavancagem média do setor, investimentos do setor, Ibovespa, pib, inflação, market-to-book, Q de Tobin, lucratividade, liquidez, crescimento e risco do negócio apresentaram significância estatística, no sentido de explicar as variações da variável dependente, ou seja, a alavancagem a valor de mercado. Outras variáveis, como concentração do setor, taxa de juros, tamanho e tangibilidade, não apresentaram, depois da regressão robusta, significância estatística.

Research question- This thesis investigates the determinants of capital structure of the Swedish companies. In order to do so, the two dominant theories of the corporate structure are studied and their assumptions are tested. Thus, the study researches which one of the two theories is more appealing for the Swedish market. Methodology-The study follows a purely quantitative study, by conducting an econometric analysis. The data are collected from a secondary source and more particularly the "Retriever" database, which contains financial data of the Swedish companies. Findings- The findings indicate that the determinants of the corporate structure for the Swedish market do not differ from other studies which have been conducted in other countries. However, there is a difference when it comes to tax and non-tax shields. The results suggest that in most cases the Pecking Order Theory appears to be more representative for the Swedish market, since most of the coefficient appear to be in favour of it. Moreover, the significance of the effect of the industry for the financial leverage is confirmed.

This paper examines how small high-tech start-ups in Sweden source their funding and aims to understand the underlying factors affecting these firms financing behaviour, contributing to the relatively limited field of research conducted in Europe. To fulfil the purpose of the study, a multiple case study method was implemented as the study’s research design. A literature review generated in a theoretical framework consisting of capital structure and specifically the pecking order theory. Together with our empirics, consisting of data from interviews with six different companies, the theoretical framework composed the basis for our analysis. The data from our sample displays that these firms initially source their funding through internal funds, suggesting that small high-tech start-up firms in Sweden rely heavily on their own saved funds or other personal resources available to them at the start-up face. Our findings suggests that these firms are limited in their financial options but also that independency and control is to be seen as factors to initially be funded through internal funds. Inconsistent with the pecking order theory, evidence in this paper finds that when looking for external funds, equity is the funding source rather than debt. Two conclusions can be drawn from this. First, the high-tech start-up firms seem to value the advisory of equity investor. Second, capital imperfections makes it hard to access debt. Furthermore, we find that majority of the case companies does not implement a capital structure policy since it seems to limited their financial options.

As decisões relacionadas à configuração da estrutura de capital das empresas impulsionam as pesquisas há mais de cinqüenta anos. Muito embora o assunto seja recorrente e atual no meio acadêmico, ele se mantém bastante controverso. Neste trabalho são exploradas diretamente duas bases teóricas distintas: a Static Trade off Theory (STT), a partir do modelo proposto por Frank e Goyal (2003) e a Pecking Order Theory (POT), a partir do modelo proposto por Shyam-Sunder e Myers (1999). Os resultados destes testes são comparados aos modelos propostos por Qiu e Smith (2007) e Bahng e Jeong (2012) para analisar a estrutura de endividamento das empresas a níveis diferentes de alavancagem. A amostra selecionada consiste de empresas brasileiras de capital aberto, não-financeiras e não-regulamentadas, listadas na Bolsa de Valores Mobiliários de São Paulo (BM&FBovespa) no período entre 2002 e 2011. Utilizou-se como metodologia as técnicas Regressão Múltipla por meio do método dos Mínimos Quadrados Ordinários (MQO) comparativamente à Regressão Quantílica. Como resultados destacou-se uma velocidade de ajuste à estrutura de capital alvo entre 6% e 14% ao ano, nos teste da teoria trade off. Quanto aos testes da teoria pecking order, constatou-se que as empresas brasileiras se orientam conforme esta teoria na tomada de decisão sobre estrutura de capital, financiando-se em grande parte com capital de terceiros. / Decisions related to the configuration of the capital structure of companies drive research for over fifty years. Although it is recurrent and current in academia, it remains quite controversial. This paper explored directly two different theoretical bases: the Static Trade off Theory (STT), from the model proposed by Frank and Goyal (2003) and the Pecking Order Theory (POT), from the model proposed by Shyam-Sunder and Myers (1999). The results of these tests are compared to the models proposed by Qiu and Smith (2007) and Bahng and Jeong (2012) to analyze the debt structure of firms at different levels of leverage. The sample consists of Brazilian companies traded, non-financial and non-regulated, listed on the Securities Exchange of São Paulo (BM & FBovespa) between 2002 and 2011. It was used as a methodology techniques Multiple Regression by the method of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) compared to Quantile Regression. The results pointed to a speed of adjustment to target capital structure between 6% and 14% per year, the trade off theory test. As for testing the pecking order theory, it was found that Brazilian companies are oriented according to this theory in decision making on capital structure, financing itself largely with debt capital.

Inledning: Vi lever i en föränderlig värld, det ekonomiska tillståndet skiftar från land till land och när en stor finansiell kris bryter ut så drabbas de flesta länderna. Företag möter varje dag utmaningar, det är dock under en finansiell kris som dessa utmaningar är som svårast. Det gäller i dessa situationer att företagen sätter upp verklighetsbaserade mål, som under de förutsättningar som råder går att uppnå. Samtidigt ska företagen balansera sina mål gällande lönsamhet och tillväxt så att både ledning och aktieägarna blir nöjda och får det som de efterfrågar. Syfte: Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur företagen uppnår en balanserad mållinje med hjälp av nyckeltalen för tillväxt och lönsamhet. Uppsatsens syfte är även att undersöka vilka faktorer som påverkar den balanserade mållinjen. Metod: Uppsatsen kommer att ske i en kvantitativ ansats, genom att undersöka företag och hur deras finansiella mål ser ut samt hur företaget arbetar med dem. Information som behövs i undersökningen kommer vi få från de tre undersökta företagens årsredovisningar. Resultat: Den finansiella krisen som bröt ut år 2008 har påverkat de tre undersökta företagen negativt. De målen som företagen satt ut för lönsamhet och tillväxt har varit för höga och under de tre senaste åren har dessa ibland inte uppnåtts. Då finansiella kriser i allmänhet kännetecknas av att många företag går i konkurs eller har det dåligt ställt, borde målen kring lönsamhet och tillväxt hos de tre undersökta företagen varit lägre satta så att de kunde möta den hårda verkligheten. / Title: Profitability and growth, does the companies balance their financial goals? Authors: Christina Pierre and Paulina Kaim Supervisor: Maria Smolander Background: We live in a changing world, the economic situation varies from country to country and when a major financial crisis breaks out most of the countries suffer. Companies face challenges every day, but it is during a financial crisis that these challenges are hardest. In these situations it is important to set up reality based targets, which under the circumstances can be achieved. Simultaneously the companies must balance their goals regarding profitability and growth so that both management and shareholders will be satisfied and get what they want. Aim: The purpose of this paper is to examine how companies achieve their balanced goal line by using the keywords growth and profitability. The purpose of this study is also to investigate which factors influence the balanced goal line. Method: The paper will be done in a quantitative approach, by examining the companies and how their financial goals look like and how the companies work with them. The information that is needed in this study will be taken from the three investigated companies annual reports. Results: The financial crisis that erupted in 2008 has affected the three studied companies negatively. The goals that the companies have set out for profitability and growth have been too high and over the past three years these have not been achieved. Financial crises are generally characterized by the fact that many companies go bankrupt or have it poorly. Therefor the goals regarding profitability and growth should have been set lower so that they would be prepared for the harsh reality. Keywords: "The internal financial system", the balanced goal line, agent theory and the pecking order theory.