Self-regulated learning theory explains how it is not only the amount of time musicians spend practising that affects achievement, but also the nature of the strategies employed. Because practice is self-directed, motivational effects on its efficiency are especially salient. One construct that has received little attention in relation to practising is self-determination theory, which interprets motivation as lying along a continuum of perceived autonomy. This mixed-methods study investigated links between motivational beliefs and self-regulated practising behaviour through a two-phase design. In Phase One, 677 music examination candidates aged 8-19 completed a questionnaire consisting of items addressing practising behaviour and perceived musical competence; in addition, the Self-Regulation Questionnaire (SRQ; Ryan & Connell, 1989) was adapted to explore intrinsic-extrinsic motives for learning an instrument. Factor analysis of the SRQ revealed five dimensions with partial correspondence to earlier research: internal, external, social, shame-related, and exam-related motives. Three practice behaviour factors consistent with self-regulated learning theory emerged: effort management, monitoring, and strategy use. Results of structural equation modelling showed that internal motivation accounted best for variance in these three types of practising behaviour, with a small added effect from competence beliefs and exam-related motivation. Phase Two consisted of observational case studies of four of the questionnaire participants preparing for their subsequent annual examination. Adolescent, intermediate-level musicians were recorded while practising at home; immediately afterwards, they watched the videotape and verbalised any recollected thoughts. The procedure concluded with a semi-structured interview and debriefing. The videotapes were analysed with The Observer Video-Pro and combined with verbal data; emerging themes were then compared with issues arising from the interviews. The observational aspect of the case studies largely confirmed the importance of three cyclical self-regulatory processes emerging from Phase One: (a) effort management and motivational self-regulation, (b) the role of self-monitoring of accuracy, and (c) the use of corrective strategies, such as structured repetition, task simplification, and vocalisation. The mixture of quantitative and qualitative methods used in the study has uncovered a rich body of information that begins to clarify the complex motivational and behavioural nature of young people practising a musical instrument.

Syfte och frågeställningar Syftet med studien var att undersöka hur en tränare i ett ungdomsakademilag bedrev fotbollsträning och interagerade med spelarna utifrån ett motivations- och inlärningsperspektiv. Detta ledde fram till följande frågeställningar: Utifrån Self-Determination Theory, var tränaren i sitt interagerande med spelarna övervägande autonomistödjande eller kontrollerande? Utifrån Achievement Goal Theory, var tränaren i sitt interagerande med spelarna övervägande uppgiftsorienterad eller ego-orienterad? Hur stor del av fotbollsträningen var isolerad kontra funktionell? Metod I studien deltog en tränare för ett akademilag i fotboll. Tränaren var 30 år gammal och hade en avslutad kandidatexamen i idrott samt var innehavare av UEFA Advanced Level Diploma. Tränaren videofilmades och observerades i efterhand utifrån ACT (Assessment of Coaching Tone). Omfånget var 5 träningspass och tiden i isolerade kontra funktionella övningar klockades. Resultat Tränarens interageranden var 11% Autonomy supportive, 37% Neutral och 52% Controlling. Evaluation related feedback var 22% Mastery-oriented, 32% Neutral och 46% Ego-oriented. Övningsformerna var till 95% funktionellt uppbyggda och till 5% isolerade. Slutsats Utifrån Assessment of Coaching Tone verkar tränaren i sina interageranden med spelarna vara övervägande kontrollerande samt skapa ett resultatorienterat motivationsklimat. Utifrån Self-Determination Theory och Achievement Goal Theory försvårar sannolikt dessa interageranden spelarnas möjlighet att utveckla självbestämmande motivation. Övningsformerna är i hög grad funktionella vilket sannolikt ökar chansen för att spelarna kan utveckla en perceptuell-kognitiv förmåga som krävs för att nå elitnivå.

Self-determination theory (SDT) has been used to study motivation and motivational strategies within many different domains one of the most pertinent being academia. The theory emphasizes the importance of autonomy, competence, and relatedness needs and places a strong emphasis on environmental factors as both fostering and impeding of motivational energies, while simultaneously giving less importance to intrapersonal determinants of motivation such as personality and attachment. This gap in the literature was addressed in this study by investigating that aspect of academic motivation which has not been of a salient interest to SDT. To test the hypotheses that Neuroticism, Extraversion, Conscientiousness, and attachment styles are associated with Intrinsic Motivation, with attachment being a stronger predictor, 272 participants at a midsize university completed a survey including scales assessing personality traits, attachment style, and academic motivation. Data were analyzed using correlation, regression, and moderation analyses and as hypothesized, all three personality traits were significantly associated with Anxiety and Avoidance attachment dimensions, which in turn were related to Intrinsic Motivation, though only partially. Attachment Avoidance emerged as the most important dimension of attachment accounting for a significant amount of variance in Intrinsic Motivation beyond personality and illustrating the relatedness component of self-determination theory. Implications of these results include both theoretical (example, conceptualizing relatedness in terms of attachment Avoidance), and practical (example, suggestions for instructors on methods for increasing student Intrinsic Motivation) aspects.

Researchers of student motivation have often explained students’ desire to engage in various activities in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Babad, 1993; Legutki, 2010; McPherson, 2000; O’Neill, 1999). However, there is a perpetuating absence of a unifying and theory-based understanding of motivation in music education that illustrates the need for the current study. Using self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 2000) as the theoretical framework, I examined (a) the association between fulfillment of psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, and relatedness) experienced by high school orchestra students and their perceived level of autonomy-supportive learning, and (b) the connection between different qualities of self-determined motivation (i.e., external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic regulation) and students’ intentions to engage in music learning in the future. This cross-sectional quantitative study incorporated an author-designed instrument, which was an adaptation of Basic Psychological Needs Scale (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and Self-Regulation Questionnaire-Learning version (Black & Deci, 2000). I surveyed 706 high school orchestra students in the Midwest, and the response rate was 99.7%. The findings indicate that autonomy (β = .37), competence (β = .17), and relatedness (β = .14) positively predicted music students’ overall outlook on their autonomy-supportive learning. Identified regulation and intrinsic regulation positively predicted music students’ short- (β = .23, β = .34), medium- (β = .15, β = .29), and long-term intentions (β = .25, β = .25) of music engagement, indicating that there is a connection between autonomous regulation in music students and their future engagement intentions. External regulation (β = -.10) negatively predicted short-term intention only, indicating that there is a connection between extrinsic motivation and low intentions to continue must learning. This study provides evidence to support self-determination theory as a viable approach for understanding student motivation in the field of music education. Future research recommendations and implications for teaching are also provided.

Thesis (Ed.D.)--Boston University / PLEASE NOTE: Boston University Libraries did not receive an Authorization To Manage form for this thesis or dissertation. It is therefore not openly accessible, though it may be available by request. If you are the author or principal advisor of this work and would like to request open access for it, please contact us at open-help@bu.edu. Thank you. / The purpose of this study was to examine the motives for participation in and withdrawal from sport of Special Olympics (SO) athletes using the frameworks of motivation in sport for athletes without disabilities. Two theoretical frameworks were applied--achievement motivation and self-determination theory (SDT). In addition, previous studies on the application of SDT to understanding motivation in people with intellectual disabilities (ID) were examined. This study included a nationally representative sample of 1,307 families, 579 SO athletes, and 300 SO coaches from 17 randomly selected states in the United States. Athletes and families were interviewed by telephone by trained interviewers from The Gallup Organization. Coaches were also interviewed by telephone, by the author and trained graduate students. Interviews followed scripted protocols that included questions about demographics, SO participation, and motivation for sport participation and withdrawal. The findings of this study suggest that there is similarity in motivation for sport participation between athletes with and without ID, as compared to the literature. The findings suggest, contrary to the literature on motivation for people with ID, that athletes with ID can be intrinsically motivated. However, there was a dichotomy of reasons for sport withdrawal. SO athletes generally left sport due to one of two reasons, personal interest in sport or other activities or some factor outside of the athlete's control, namely access to a local SO program. It is critical to note the relevance of the latter reason for sport withdrawal as it underscores a striking difference between athletes without disabilities and athletes with ID. In all, the theoretical frameworks of motivation have demonstrated relevance on the motivation for sport participation and withdrawal for athletes with ID. However, withdrawal due to external factors suggests a limitation in the application of the theoretical frameworks to adequately describe sport withdrawal for athletes with ID. Overall the results of this study emphasize that sport can also be a powerful experience for people with ID and promote an empowering message--that athletes are athletes, regardless of disability. / 2031-01-02

abstract: Two models of motivation are prevalent in the literature on sport and exercise participation (Deci & Ryan, 1991; Vallerand, 1997, 2000). Both models are grounded in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and consider the relationship between intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation in explaining behavior choice and outcomes. Both models articulate the relationship between need satisfaction (i.e., autonomy, competence, relatedness; Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and various cognitive, affective, and behavioral outcomes as a function of self-determined motivation. Despite these comprehensive models, inconsistencies remain between the theories and their practical applications. The purpose of my study was to examine alternative theoretical models of intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation using the Sport Motivation Scale-6 (SMS-6; Mallett et al., 2007) to more thoroughly study the structure of motivation and the practical utility of using such a scale to measure motivation among runners. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to evaluate eight alternative models. After finding unsatisfactory fit of these models, exploratory factor analysis was conducted post hoc to further examine the measurement structure of motivation. A three-factor structure of general motivation, external accolades, and isolation/solitude explained motivation best, although high cross-loadings of items suggest the structure of this construct still lacks clarity. Future directions to modify item content and re-examine structure as well as limitations of this study are discussed. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Educational Psychology 2012

Essa pesquisa teve como objetivo investigar a motivação de coristas para participar da atividade coral de extensão universitária. As questões que nortearam essa investigação foram: a) Quais os motivos que levam o indivíduo a procurar um coro? São os mesmos que o fazem continuar? b) qual a influência do ambiente coral na motivação dos coristas? c) Quais os motivos que podem levar o corista a abandonar um grupo coral? São internos ou externos à atividade? O referencial teórico utilizado foi fundamentado na Teoria da Autodeterminação, que analisa as razões pelas quais os indivíduos se envolvem ou evitam determinadas atividades. Essas razões são evidenciadas pelos diferentes tipos de motivação que podem ser distinguidos de acordo com seu nível de autodeterminação, através da satisfação de três necessidades psicológicas básicas: a necessidade de autonomia, a necessidade de competência e a necessidade de pertencimento. Na metodologia da pesquisa optamos por uma abordagem qualitativa, através de entrevistas semiestruturadas a coristas ativos e ex-coristas de um dos grupos corais de extensão universitária. Os dados foram reduzidos baseados nas questões da pesquisa e foram analisados à luz da teoria da autodeterminação. Os dados revelaram que os coristas nem sempre buscam a atividade por motivos intrínsecos a ela e que o contexto coral, por vezes, frustra alguma das necessidades psicológicas básicas, podendo influenciar na motivação para continuar na atividade. Como resultados, pretende-se fomentar a reflexão sobre questões motivacionais entre regentes e educadores musicais que trabalham com coros, bem como sua respectiva formação. / This research aimed to investigate the chorister motivation to join the choir activity of an university extension program. The questions that guided this research were: a) What are the reasons a person seeks a chorus? Are the same reasons that make them continue? b) What is the influence of choral environment in chorister motivation? c) What are the reasons the chorister gives up a choir? Are these reasons internal or external to the activity? The theoretical framework was based on Self-determination Theory, which analyzes the reasons why individuals engage or avoid certain activities. These reasons are evidenced by different types of motivation that can be distinguished according to their level of self-determination, through the satisfaction of three basic psychological needs: the need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. In research methodology we decided for a qualitative approach, through semi-structured interviews with active choristers and former choristers from one of the university extension choirs. Data were reduced based on the research questions and were analyzed in the light of self-determination theory. The data revealed that the choristers not always seek the activity for intrinsic reasons and that the choral environment sometimes frustrates some of the basic psychological needs, which may influence the motivation to continue in the activity. As a result, we intend to foster reflection on motivational issues between conductors and music educators who work with choir, as well as their respective education.

I dagens skola finns ett stort fokus på hög måluppfyllelse, bedömning och betyg. Enligt forskning är det av stor vikt att eleven själv har en inre motivation och känner tillit till sitt lärande. Detta går emot dagens mål- och betygshets och påverkar elevens motivation negativt. En stor andel av eleverna i studien indikerar lågt självförtroende, omotivation och känsla av inkompetens på matematiklektionerna. Vi vet att motivation har stor betydelse för lärande men hur skapas en sådan undervisning? Vi tror att motiverade elever med ett gott självförtroende når en högre måluppfyllelse, därför är syftet med studien att ta reda på hur undervisning kan bedrivas så att elevers matematiska självförtroende och motivation gynnas. Fokus är de elever som befaras utveckla matematiksvårigheter. Studien är kvalitativ och data har samlats in via elevenkäter, lärarintervjuer och observationer i årskurs 4 och 5 på två skolor i två kommuner. Det teoretiska ramverket i studien är Self Determination Theory (SDT) samt sociokulturell teori. Teorierna har använts vid utformande av datainsamlingsmetoderna och i analys. I resultatet ser vi exempel på elevers önskan att erbjudas undervisning som bygger på samarbete med en eller flera och få stöd från föräldrar och kamrater för att lära sig matematik. Det framkom även att lärare såg formativ återkoppling och att erbjuda uppgifter som kan lösas på olika nivåer som viktigt. Lärare har viss kunskap om hur stor betydelse motivation och självförtroende i matematik har, men de behöver bättre förutsättningar och mer kunskap. Vi hoppas att studien kan bidra till mer kunskap och därmed högre måluppfyllelse.

Stress is the main contributing risk factor in the development of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes as well as mental illnesses such as depression, anxiety, and somatic symptoms. In particular, job stress may undermine the productivity, morale, relationships, and well-being of employees. Mounting research demonstrate that leisure can contribute to one’s health and well-being by enhancing a stress coping mechanism. The primary purpose of this study is to investigate stress coping and health-promoting behaviors in conjunction with leisure by comparing three types of leisure (active, passive, and social). In addition, the associations between types of leisure motivation and types of leisure, personal attributes influencing types of leisure, and personal attributes moderating the impact of types of leisure motivation on active leisure, were examined. A cross-sectional study was conducted by distributing electronic surveys containing five instruments (Types of Leisure, Leisure Motivation, Coping Self-Efficacy, Perceived Stress, and Health-Promoting Behaviors) along with a demographic questionnaire to 3739 Southern Illinois University (SIU) full-time employees. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) was used to provide the theoretical framework for this study. Perceived stress, coping self-efficacy, and health-promoting behaviors in conjunction with types of leisure were examined. SDT, which mainly posits human psychological well-being induced by fostering intrinsic motivation as opposed to extrinsic motivation, derived research questions with respect to the relationships between types of leisure, types of leisure motivation, and health-promoting behaviors. In addition, the influences of types of leisure motivation on alleviation of perceived stress were examined by comparing the types of leisure (active, passive, and social). For the demographic variables, the influences of personal attributes such as age and BMI on types of leisure were examined. Lastly, whether perceived health status moderates the effect of the type of leisure motivation on active leisure was investigated. Demographic data showed that out of 605 (N = 605) who participated in the survey, 448 participants completed all the survey questions. Statistical analyses which employ descriptive, Pearson correlation, simple/simultaneous regression, and multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) were performed to investigate the research questions. The analyses revealed that all three types of leisure (active, passive, and social) were positively correlated with each other, coping self-efficacy, health-promoting behaviors and negatively correlated with perceived stress. Also, coping self-efficacy significantly predicted health-promoting behaviors as well as perceived stress. With respect to the associations between types of leisure motivation and types of leisure, intrinsic leisure motivation toward stimulation had the strongest significant association with active leisure. Intrinsic leisure motivation toward knowledge had the strongest significant association with passive leisure. Extrinsic leisure motivation identified had the strongest significant association with social leisure. With regard to types of leisure motivation influencing perceived stress, intrinsic leisure motivation toward external regulation was the strongest significant predictor for elevated levels of perceived stress even after taking into account intrinsic leisure motivation toward stimulation and extrinsic leisure motivation identified. In addition, extrinsic leisure motivation identified significantly predicted lowered levels of perceived stress. With regard to the association between types of leisure motivation and health-promoting behaviors, extrinsic leisure motivation identified had the strongest significant association with health-promoting behaviors. For the demographic variables in conjunction with types of leisure, females exhibited a significantly higher score on social leisure than males and education levels influenced active leisure, indicating that employees with a master's degree had a significantly higher score on active leisure than those with bachelor's degree or some college/high school diploma. Perceived health status significantly predicted active leisure, indicating that university employees with higher levels of perceived health status were more likely to participate in active leisure than those with lower levels of perceived health status. Lastly, the interaction between perceived health status and intrinsic leisure motivation toward stimulation was significant, indicating that the impact of intrinsic leisure motivation toward stimulation on active leisure differed depending on perceived health status. In other words, the impact of intrinsic leisure motivation toward stimulation was significantly greater in university employees with low perceived health status as compared to those with high perceived health status. This study seems to be meaningful in suggesting that leisure can be a contributing factor for health possibly through reducing perceived stress and enhancing health behaviors. Also, meaningful engagement in leisure may play a role as an effective stress coping strategy, which may lead to long term health-promoting behaviors by fostering intrinsic motivation. Personal attributes such as age, BMI, education level, and perceived health status may impact participating in active leisure. Furthermore, perceived health status may moderate the impact of intrinsic leisure motivation toward stimulation on active leisure. Further research comparing types of leisure impacting stress and health behaviors with more well-refined types of leisure scale is warranted.

Proposed associations between social influence strategies (i.e., persuasion, coercion, and relationship referencing), Kelman's (1958; 1961) processes of change (i.e., internalization, identification, and compliance), and types of motivation derived from self-determination theory were examined. Proposed associations between social influence strategies and relationship satisfaction were also examined. A sample of 194 undergraduate students answered various questionnaires to measure relationship satisfaction, motivation to engage in exercise, Kelman's processes, and forms of social influence. Results indicated significant associations between social influence strategies and Kelman's processes, as well as significant associations between Kelman's processes and motivation. Results supported one mediation path (i.e., persuasion is associated with intrinsic motivation via internalization). Results also indicated an association between persuasive influence strategies and relationship satisfaction.