6 Pharmacokinetics of Intramuscularly Administered Thermoresponsive Polyacrylamides Author: Ondřej Groborz Supervisor: doc. Mgr. Martin Hrubý, Ph.D., DSc. Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences Advisers: Ing. Pavel Švec RNDr. Lenka Loukotová, PhD. Abstract Polymer solutions with lower critical solution temperature (LCST) undergo a phase separation when heated above their cloud point temperature (TCP). These thermoresponsive polymers have numerous promising medicinal applications, such as in situ depot-forming radiotherapy (brachytherapy), controlled drug-release, immuno-radiotherapy, injectable thermogelling for tissue engineering and cell culture and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), among others. Yet, despite extensive research on medicinal applications of thermoresponsive polymers, their fate after their administration remains largely unknown. Thus, in our study, we synthesized and thoroughly characterized four different thermoresponsive polyacrylamides, namely poly(N-(2,2-difluoroethyl)acrylamide), poly(N- isopropylacrylamide), poly(N,N-diethylacrylamide) and poly(N-acryloylpyrrolidine) under physiologically relevant conditions. Subsequently, we determined their biodistribution kinetics in mice and proposed a data-based pharmacological model to describe their in vivo behaviour,...

Despite being the most prevalent presentation of Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD), dry AMD (dAMD) lacks a therapeutic treatment. Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) dysfunction preceding the onset of dAMD has inspired interest in regenerative medicine approaches seeking to replenish the RPE and preserve visual acuity. Cell delivery to the subretinal space however has been met with challenges surrounding ease of access and invasive surgical implantation. Two-dimensional scaffolds have made use of natural and polymeric materials to act as carriers for RPE cells and various progenitor lines. These substrates mitigate issues surrounding the handling of delicate cell sheets harvested for transplant. As well, they are often successful in preserving RPE phenotype, supporting growth, and can be fine tuned to possess morphologies comparable to native extracellular matrix (ECM). Despite aiming to act as replacement Bruch’s membrane on which RPE resides, two-dimensional substrates are often notably bulky and require traumatic surgery for implantation. As a result, the use of injectable methods of cell delivery has gained appeal. Bolus injections, despite improved methods of administration, are correlated with issues of inadequate cell localization. In response, three-dimensional hydrogel carriers for retinal applications aim to encapsulate cells, allowing for better cell distribution as these materials spread throughout the subretinal space. Increased viscosity of hydrogels as compared to saline injections, is hypothesized to improve cell loss and reduce aggregation. Of particular interest are in situ gelling systems, which undergo physical changes upon injection. Gelation upon delivery works to further assist in maintaining the cells within their target site. Purity and reproducibility concerns associated with the use of natural materials in the development of hydrogel cell carriers, have inspired the use of synthetic thermoresponsive poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (pNIPAAm). pNIPAAm undergoes a liquid to gel transition at a lower critical solution temperature (LCST) of 32°C. Copolymerization with various hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups can be used to adjust gel properties such as increasing or decreasing LCST, allowing for degradation, and improving water retention. In the work described herein, two NIPAAm-based thermoresponsive hydrogels intended for use as subretinal cell carriers are proposed. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

There is a need for a minimally invasive delivery method to enable cell therapies to combat peripheral artery occlusive disease (PAOD) in end stage patients. Myoblasts show promise as a cell mediated therapy but warrant an improved delivery method to increase cell retention in the region of interest because of their adherent nature, relative to previously used BM-MNC’s that are non-adherent. Contemporary issues with achieving successful cell therapies of vasculature can be mainly characterized by the lack of clinical translation from promising animal studies and absence of cell delivery scaffolding. Naturally, polymers have been widely experimented with as grafts to both culture and implant cells into tissue with recognizable success due to their analogous physical properties, such as stiffness, hydrophilicity, & surface energy, that mimic tissue conditions. Polymers having similar mechanical properties to anatomical structures are conducive to cell integration & retention, making polymers an effective biomaterial choice as a cell delivery vehicle. This thesis will evaluate the application of N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) based copolymers as a biomaterial scaffold for myoblast delivery, as it is one of the most widely used biocompatible polymers with thermoreversible properties that is non-toxic and has manipulatable mechanical properties. We hypothesized that fluctuations in polymer construct stiffness, surface energy, and water retention affect myoblast proliferation & viability within the cell delivery vehicle. After measuring the physical properties and cellular proliferation in for each polymer composition, the goal of this thesis was to establish a statistical model to characterize the effect of polymer material properties on myoblast behavior and create a predictive model to optimize further iterations of NIPAM-based copolymers for cell delivery.

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Poly(N-isopropyl-acrylamide) (PNIPAM) is a thermoresponsive polymer with a wide range of biological applications, including drug delivery, biosensing, and tissue engineering. The tunability of the structural and mechanical properties of PNIPAM makes it particularly at- tractive in emulating cell environments and dynamic cytoskeletal deformations. This thesis discusses PNIPAM's properties and applications in different forms i.e., solution, brushes, hydrogels, and surface patterned hydrogels, with specific focus on lithographically patterned substrates coated with PNIPAM films. The scaffolds are investigated for structural and me- chanical responses to thermally driven changes in the PNIPAM hydration states using atomic force microscopy (AFM). AFM measurements on our lithographically patterned substrates show that the substrate pattern and coating method enable the fabrication of scaffolds with different topographic and mechanical properties across a wide thermal range. Importantly, these scaffolds exhibit variations in both lateral topography and Young's modulus, rendering them well suited for investigations of differential mechanical stresses experienced by cells and cell membranes. / Master of Science / Poly(N-isopropyl-acrylamide) (PNIPAM) is a polymer which can change its water absorption depending on the temperature of its aqueous environment. It transitions from a swollen state at room temperature to a collapsed state at around 32 °C. These thermally tunable properties make PNIPAM an attractive candidate in a variery of applications, including biomedical and biophysical applications. In this thesis, PNIPAM is coated on lithographically patterned substrates to emulate the cellular cytoskeleton. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) measurements are performed to measure the topography and mechanical properties of the fabricated scaffolds. The results show that the coating method and the features of the used substrate allow the fabrication of different surface topographies with biologically relevant mechanics.

Zwei Modellreaktionen wurden mit thermoresponsiven Nanoreaktoren untersucht. Die Reduktion von 4-Nitrophenol und von Kaliumhexacyanidoferrat(III) mit Natriumborhydrid. Die Nanoreaktoren bestehen aus einem Polystyrol Kern, umgeben von einer Hydrogel Schale aus Poly-(N-Isopropylacrylamid). Die Reaktionen werden auf der Oberfläche von Metall Nanopartikeln in der Hydrogel Schale katalysiert. In einer auf Gold- und Silberkatalysatoren fokussierten Literaturstudie zeigte sich, dass der geschwindigkeitsbestimmende Reaktionsschritt zwischen beiden Metallen variieren könnte. Kinetische Studien mit Silber haben gezeigt, dass ein erfolgreich auf Gold angewandtes Modell modifiziert werden muss um auf Silber anwendbar zu sein und haben gezeigt, dass sich die Kinetik der Reaktion auf beiden Metallen unterscheidet. Die weitere Analyse ergab die typische, nicht der Arrhenius Abhängigkeit folgende, Abhängigkeit der Reaktionsrate von der Temperatur und hat gezeigt, dass die Partitionierung der Reaktanden im Hydrogel für das kinetische Modell relevant ist. Die Reduktion von Kaliumhexacyanidoferrat(III) auf Gold hat gezeigt, dass elektrostatische Effekte hier eine maßgebliche Rolle spielen. Ein kinetisches Modell wurde erarbeitet, dass die relevanten Einflussfaktoren durch Hydrogel, Geometrie der Nanoreaktoren, diffusions- und elektrostatische Effekte miteinbezieht. Die gewonnenen Daten konnten mittels eines auf der Auswertung des stationären Zustands basierenden Modells erfolgreich gefittet werden. Hierbei wurde das komplexe Zusammenspiel von elektrostatischen Effekten, deren Abschirmung und Einfluss auf die Diffusion sowie die Reaktionsrate gezeigt. Mit wenigen physikalisch aussagekräftigen Fitparametern konnten alle beobachteten Effekte erfolgreich erklärt werden. Der Vergleich der Reduktion von 4-Nitrophenol und von Hexacyanidoferrat(III) zeigt hierbei die entscheidenden Faktoren sowohl für reaktions- als auch für diffusionskontrollierte Reaktionen in thermoresponsiven Hydrogelen. / Two model reactions were investigated with thermoresponsive core-shell nanoreactors, the reduction of 4-nitrophenol and of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III), both reduced with sodium borohydride. The nanoreactors comprise of a polystyrene core surrounded by a hydrogel shell of poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (PNIPAM) crosslinked with N,N’-methylenebisacrylamide. Metal nanoparticles are immobilized inside the hydrogel shell on the surface of which the model reactions are catalyzed. In the reduction of 4-nitrophenol, special emphasis is laid on the reduction on gold and silver catalysts. A literature review of mechanistic as well as kinetic studies reveals that the rate determining step may differ between the two catalyst metals. Kinetic investigations with a silver catalyst reveal that the kinetic model derived previously for gold catalysts needs to be modified for the kinetic analysis in this study, confirming a difference in the kinetics for both catalyst metals. The temperature dependent analysis reveals the typical non-Arrhenius dependency of the reaction rate and shows that the partition ratio of the reactants is relevant for the kinetics. The reduction of potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) on gold reveals that electrostatic effects play a major role in this reaction. A new kinetic model is derived, accounting the relevant influence factors of the hydrogel, the nanoreactor geometry, diffusional and electrostatic effects. With a stationary state approach the experimental data are fitted successfully, revealing the complex interplay of electrostatic effects, the screening thereof and the influence on diffusion and reaction rate. With only a few physically meaningful fit parameters all observed effects can be explained successfully. The comparison of the reduction of 4-nitrophenol and potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) highlights the decisive factors in both, reaction and diffusion controlled reactions inside thermoresponsive hydrogels.

Cellular growth, development, differentiation, and death are mediated to some degree by the interaction of soluble factors with plasma membrane receptors. Traditionally the cellular response to chemical cues has been studied by exposing entire culture dishes to a desired reagent. While the addition of soluble reagents homogenously to cell culture dishes provides a basis for understanding much of cell biology, greater spatial resolution of reagent delivery is necessary in order to elucidate mechanisms on the subcellular scale. This dissertation explores techniques that may improve the quality and precision of delivering soluble factors to cultured cells in order to better understand the complex processes of cell biology. These advancements were made possible by applying high intensity, focused laser light to soluble materials to achieve microscopic three-dimensional (µ-3D) printing. In combination with a previously developed microfluidic cell dosing platform, microstructures were designed and µ-3D printed to hydrodynamically focus reagent streams for cell dosing. Structures were also µ-3D printed within micrometers of living cells from a solution of gelatin and bovine serum albumin with minimal cytotoxicity. When µ-3D printed, these proteins displayed both temperature and pH-responsive properties. In order to allow for on-the-fly control of reagent stream size and temporal pulse width, microstructures were µ-3D printed from temperature-responsive N- isoproplyacrylamide. To further improve the temporal resolution of the system, a technique for cycling between reagents with millisecond exchange times using laminar flow microfluidics was developed. The utility of these techniques was demonstrated by staining rat Schwann cells and mouse neuroblastoma rat glioma hybrid cells (NG108-15) with focused streams of fluorescent dyes. These advancements may allow future experiments to determine the placement of soluble factors necessary for bacterial quorum sensing or stem cell differentiation. / text

Submitted by Anna Carolina Telatin Tognolo null (carol.telatin@hotmail.com) on 2017-08-31T18:27:57Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Defesa_final Anna Carolina Telatin Tognolo.pdf: 2257425 bytes, checksum: 23469d70943bc2e64ecd46da99e37dc2 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luiz Galeffi (luizgaleffi@gmail.com) on 2017-09-01T14:39:51Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 tognolo_act_me_araiq.pdf: 2257425 bytes, checksum: 23469d70943bc2e64ecd46da99e37dc2 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-09-01T14:39:51Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 tognolo_act_me_araiq.pdf: 2257425 bytes, checksum: 23469d70943bc2e64ecd46da99e37dc2 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-08-07 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / O câncer é uma das doenças mais desafiadoras e não solucionadas até hoje na medicina moderna. Apesar das terapias padrões como radioterapia, quimioterapia, cirurgia ou combinações desses tratamentos serem efetivos, esses procedimentos apresentam diversos efeitos colaterais. Portanto, há uma vasta investigação por tratamentos alternativos a fim de diminuir os efeitos colaterais dessas terapias. Nanopartículas magnéticas de óxido de ferro (NP) modificadas com polímeros termossensíveis, vêm sendo desenvolvidas como um sistema de liberação controlada de fármaco e hipertermia magnética. Na presença de um campo magnético alternado externo (AC), esses sistemas são aquecidos induzindo a transição do polímero e, consequentemente, liberando o fármaco. Sendo assim, a proposta deste trabalho foi o desenvolvimento de um nanosistema terapêutico multifuncional. Nanopartículas superparamagnéticas de óxido de ferro foram sintetizadas, funcionalizadas com o alcoxisilano 3-mercaptopropil – trimetoxisilano (MPTS) e modificadas com o copolímero termossensível Poli(N-isopropilacrilamida-co-dimetilacrilamida), P(NIPAAm-co-DMAAm), para encapsulamento e liberação controlada do fármaco quimioterápico metotrexato e no tratamento por hipertermia magnética. A funcionalização com o MPTS foi confirmada por espectroscopia na região do infravermelho (FT-IR) e pela análise termogravimétrica (TGA). A copolimerização na superfície das nanopartículas foi confirmada pelas técnicas de FT-IR, medidas de potencial zeta, TGA e pela medida do diâmetro hidrodinâmico em função da temperatura. Determinou-se a baixa temperatura crítica de solução (LCST) do copolímero sintetizado, através da espectroscopia no UV-vis em função da temperatura. O valor de LCST determinado foi de 40,5 ºC e está dentro do esperado para aplicações biomédicas. Pela microscopia eletrônica de transmissão (MET), observou-se que as nanopartículas magnéticas apresentaram forma esférica e estreita distribuição de tamanho mesmo após serem modificadas com o copolímero. Os resultados obtidos na magnetermia, mostraram que as amostras aquecem quando são submetidas a um campo magnético externo, atingindo temperaturas esperadas para a hipertermia. E por fim, o encapsulamento e a liberação do metotrexato foram realizados com êxito, sendo que a liberação do fármaco acima da LCST do copolímero, apresentou melhor resultado quando comparado com a liberação abaixo dessa temperatura. / Nowadays, cancer is one of the biggest challenges in medicine. Besides the standards treatments such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgery been affect, those procedures have several sides effects. In order to reduce the sides effects, there is extensive research for alternative treatments. Iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles (NP) modified with thermosensitive polymers, has been developed as a simultaneous system, for drug delivery and for magnetic hyperthermia. In the presence of an alternating magnetic field (AC), this system will be heated, inducing a phase transition of the thermoresponsive polymer and them, consequently releasing the drug inside the tumor cells. Therefore, the proposed of this work is the development of a therapeutic multifunctional nanosystem. Iron oxide magnetic nanoparticles were synthesized, functionalized with the alkoxysilane 3- mercaptopropyl trimethoxysilane (MPTS) and modified with the thermoresponsive copolymer P(NIPAAm-co-DMAAm), for the encapsulation and controlled release of the methotrexate (MTX) and for the magnetic hyperthermia. The surface modification of nanoparticles was monitored by Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). TEM images showed nanoparticles with average size of 10 nm. The hydrodynamic diameter of the nanosystem as a function of the temperature was measured by dynamic light scattering and the hydrodynamic diameter for the P(NIPAAm-coDMAAm) surface modified nanoparticles, changes near 40 °C. Under an alternative AC, the nanosystem showed a high performance for hyperthermia treatment. Drug loading and release rate of methotrexate at different temperatures showed ideal behaviour for its application as drug delivery system.